EMS512 –

Instrumentation and
Measurements

DC Circuits and DC Circuits

Analysis
 Resistance

The opposition due to the collisions between electrons and between

electrons and other atoms in the material which converts electrical
energy into another form of energy is called the resistance of the
material.

The resistance of any material depends on:

• Material
• Length
• Cross-sectional area
• Temperature of the material
R

Unit: Ohm Ω
 Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law states that the voltage across a conductor is

directly proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain
constant.

Mathematical Expression:

Or
 Resistors in Series

Total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of all the resistance levels
in the circuit.
𝑹 𝑻 = 𝑹1 + 𝑹2 + 𝑹 3+...........+ 𝑹 𝑵

R1

R2

R3
 Resistors in Parallel

The reciprocal () value of the individual resistances are all added

together instead of the resistances themselves with the inverse of the
algebraic sum giving the equivalent resistance.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +..... +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹1 𝑹2 𝑹3 𝑹𝑵

RT R1 R2 R3
 Elements of Circuits

Branch: These are the connections between nodes. A branch is an element

(resistor, capacitor, source, etc.)
Node: A junction where two or more elements connect
Voltage Source: Active element that provides a specified and constant
voltage
Current Source: Active element that provides a specified and constant
current

node
a b

2 4
V A
1 3

c branch
 Series Circuits

Two elements are in series if

1. They have only one terminal (node) in common
2. The common terminal or node is not connected to another current-
carrying element
Series current ()
The current is same at every point in a series circuit
Voltage across resistors
The value of voltage across a resistor depends on its resistance.
A R1 B

𝑬
𝑰 𝑺=𝑰 = + I I
𝑹𝑻 R2
E
  R3
I I
C
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that “the algebraic sum of the voltages (potential

rises and drops) around a closed loop/path is equal to zero”.

Or
+ V1

I R1 I +
+
E R2 V2
Or I R3 I

V3 +
 Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

The voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the

value of that resistor times the total impressed voltage across
the series element divided by the total resistance of the series
elements.

I +
R1 V1

𝑅𝑥 𝐸 +
𝑉 𝑥= +
E R2 V2
𝑅𝑇
+
R3 V3
 Parallel Circuits

Two elements, branches or networks are in parallel if they have

two points (nodes) in common.
Voltage across parallel resistors
The voltage is always same across the parallel elements
Current across parallel resistors
The current is divided across the parallel elements. It is inversely proportional to the
resistance.

𝑽 1 =𝑽 2 =𝑬 I1 I2
Is
+
And +
+
E V1 R1 V2 R2

 
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that “the algebraic sum of the currents entering and
leaving a node/junction is equal to zero”.

The convention is that current leaving a node is positive and

current entering a node is negative.

∑ 𝐼 𝑖𝑛 =∑ 𝐼 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Node Currents
a
I2
b

  a: I1 I3
b:
c: I4
c
 Current Divider Rule (CDR)

For parallel elements with different values, the smaller the

resistance, the greater is the share of input current. The total
current is divided in to the two branches as follows:

I
𝑹2 𝑰
𝑰 1=
𝑹1 + 𝑹 2 I1 I2

R1 R2
𝑹1 𝑰
𝑰 2=
𝑹 1+ 𝑹 2
 Series Parallel Network

When circuit has a combination of series and parallel

connections, we identify which parts of that circuit are series and
which parts are parallel, then selectively apply series and parallel
rules to determine the voltage and current.

𝑹 𝑻 = 𝑹 𝑨 + ( 𝑹 𝑩‖ 𝑹𝑪 )
Is RA
𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝑻= 𝑹𝑨 +
𝑹 𝑩+ 𝑹 𝑪 E RB RC
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

Open Circuit Short Circuit

Two isolated terminals not connected by an This is a path of very low resistance, direct
element. connection between two terminals.

No path current conduction does hence A short circuit can carry a current of a level
current is always zero Amperes. determined by the external circuit

An open circuit can have a potential but the potential difference (voltage) across
difference (voltage) across its terminals. its terminals is always zero.
 Superposition Theorem

“The current through or voltage across an element of a

network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or
voltages produced independently by each source.”
Voltage sources must be replaced with a short circuit and current
sources just removed from the circuit, every version containing
just one of the sources.
 Thevenin’s Theorem

"Any network can be reduced to an equivalent circuit

consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance."

The voltage sources are relaced with Thevenin’s voltage and the
resistances are replaced with Thevenin’s resistance
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

R1  200  R2  125 
+
R3 400  RL
E  10 V

RTh  258
+
ETh 6.67 V RL
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

R1  200  R2  125 
+
R3 400  RL
E  10 V

R1  200 R2  125 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 125𝛺 + (200𝛺ԡ400𝛺)

RTh
R3 400 200𝛺 × 400𝛺
= 125𝛺 +
200𝛺 + 400𝛺

= 125𝛺 + 133𝛺 = 258𝛺

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

R1  200 R2  125
+
R3 400 ETh
E  10 V

400
𝐸𝑇ℎ = 10 V = 6.66 V
400 + 200
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

R1  200  R2  125 
+
R3 400  RL
E  10 V

RTh  258
+
ETh 6.67 V RL
 Norton's Theorem

“Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source and a parallel resistor.”
Voltage sources must be replaced with a short circuit and current
sources just removed from the circuit, every version containing
just one of the sources.
A
A
R1  3
+
R2 6 RL 3A
E 9V IN RN 2

B
B
Norton's Theorem

R1  3
RN
R2 6

 
 Norton's Theorem

I1 IN IN A

R1  3
I2  0
+ +
V2 R2 6 IN
E 9V

 
 Norton's Theorem

“Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
source and a parallel resistor.”
Voltage sources must be replaced with a short circuit and current
sources just removed from the circuit, every version containing
just one of the sources.
A
A
R1  3
+
R2 6 RL 3A
E 9V IN RN 2

B
B
 Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone bridge is a popular Voltage Divider network, which is

used to detect tiny changes in the voltages (sensor output
without fluctuation) and for finding unknown resistance.
When the bridge is balanced:

When is the unknown resistance:

𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅 4= 𝑅 𝑥 =
𝑅1