NUCLEAR

POWER
PLANT
*What is Nuclear Power
Plant?
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power plant whose source of energy
is nuclear energy.

Its operation is similar to any other thermal power plant: thermal energy
is generated from an energy source. Steam is generated with
the thermal energy generated. Electricity is generated with steam.

The difference between the different types of electrical installations is

in the source of energy: a nuclear power plant takes advantage of
the heat released in the nuclear fission reactions of
certain atoms (breaks them).
The difference between the different types of electrical installations is in the
source of energy: a nuclear power plant takes advantage of the heat released
in the nuclear fission reactions of certain atoms (breaks them).

Nuclear reactions take place in the nuclear reactor. Fission chain reactions
take place within the reactor in a controlled manner. The element that fission
is called nuclear fuel. Uranium fuel is normally used because it is a very
unstable element and easy to break.

The total energy efficiency of a nuclear power station is between 30% and
40%.

The operating life of a nuclear power plant is generally considered to be

around thirty years. The main problem they present is the management of the
nuclear waste they generate.
 What is Nuclear
Fission?
Nuclear fission is the physical-chemical reaction by which
the nucleus of an atom is split. Through this operation a large
amount of energy is obtained.
One neutron interacts with one “fissionable” nucleus (Uranium for
example)
The nucleus of atoms are made up of other smaller sub
particles: protons and neutrons. Depending on the element of
the periodic table, the composition of these sub particles varies.
Protons have a positive charge, therefore they tend to repel each
other. On the other hand, neutrons are neutral, that is, they have
no charge.
The sub particles of the atom are held together thanks to a nuclear
force that holds them together. The nuclear force is a hundred
times stronger than the electromagnetic force.
The purpose of a nuclear fission process is to alter this balance
of forces, break this nuclear force, and allow the nucleons to
separate.

After the fission of the atomic nucleus we obtain diverse

fragments, two or three neutrons and the emission of a great
quantity of energy. These fragments are known as fission
products that, having changed their proton composition, are
different chemical elements.

Fission should not be confused with nuclear fusion, which is a

way of obtaining energy from the fusion of two light atoms.
The reactions that take place in the Sun are of nuclear fusion
Examples of Nuclear Fission
Here are some examples of nuclear fission
reactions:

* In a nuclear power plant to

generate electricity.
* In the propulsion of a nuclear submarine.
* At the detonation of an atomic bomb.
* Obtaining plutonium atoms artificially from a
uranium nucleus.
 Result of Nuclear Fission

Fission Product – Two heavy nuclides

One heavier than the other (Average ratio of – 2:3)

Neutrons- 2.43 on average emitted/fission

Important that more neutrons are produced than are used
to cause one fission
 Nuclear Chain
Reactions
For the energy obtained to be greater than the energy used, it
is necessary for nuclear reactions to be chain reactions. Thus,
although a lot of energy is needed to start the nuclear chain
reaction, once the reaction has already started, not so much
energy is needed to maintain it, and there comes a time when
the energy obtained is higher than the energy used.

Chain reactions take place in the core of the nuclear reactor.

Subsequently, a circuit of tubes through which a fluid called a
refrigerant circulates will be responsible for transporting the
heat generated out of the tank, cooling it. This circuit is called
the primary circuit.
In nuclear fission, 3 neutrons are
produced along with large
amount of energy these neutrons
further cause fission producing 3
more neutrons. This process
continues for longer time and it
is know as uncontrolled chain
reaction
What Is the Nuclear Reactor and What
Is It For?
The nuclear reactor is the site
where nuclear fission reactions are
generated. Ultimately it is a
device that produces heat.

In the plant reactor, the chain

reaction is started by bombarding
an atom with a neutron. Once the
reaction has started, it can be
controlled in the same reactor by
means of the control rods and
the neutron moderator.

It is the most sensitive part of the

nuclear plant due to the high
concentration of radioactive
material. Therefore, it is highly
protected to avoid a possible
nuclear accident.
 Parts of Nuclear Reactor
1. Reactor Core:
It contains a number of fuel rods made of fissile material. They may be diluted
with non-fissionable material for better control of the reaction or to reduce the
damage from fission product poisoning. As the uranium gets oxidised rapidly, the
fuel rods should be clad with aluminium, stainless steel or zirconium. The size of
core, just sufficient to maintain a chain reaction is the “critical” size. It can be
brought down by using enriched uranium as fuel.

It is desirable to use core as cubical or cylindrical in shape rather than spherical,

as it facilitates the re-fuelling operation and simplifies the process of circulation
of coolant through the core. With this configuration, the core has a series of
parallel fuel elements in the form of thin plates or small rods, with coolant
flowing axially and additional moderator or reflector material surrounding the
assembly.

For using the reactor to convert the fertile material into fissionable material, the
material to be converted should be put around the core so that the neutrons,
which otherwise would escape the core, would be utilized for conversion. This
arrangement also simplifies the process of separation of the converted material
during fuelling reprocessing.
2. Moderator:

Neutrons produced by the fission proc­ess are ejected from the nucleus at a very high velocity
of about 1.5 × 107 m/s and therefore, have a very large kinetic energy and are termed as fast
neutrons. The elements which can undergo a fission reaction with fast neutrons are U-233, U-
235 and Pu-239.

Natural uranium contains only 0.7% U-235. Fast neu­trons are slowed down by elastic
scattering process and chain reaction can still occur. But during this process, there is a
possibility of their getting absorbed by U-238 and the chain reaction may not be maintained.
If the proportion of U-235 in the metal is increased to more than 10%, the above ab­sorption
effect can be overcome and a chain reaction is pos­sible. This occurs in fast reactors but the
enriching process is expensive.

For more effective use in nuclear reactor, it is desirable to slow down the fast neutrons to
speeds corresponding to the speed of molecules in a gas at NTP (i.e., to a speed of about 2.2
× 103 m/s). Such neutrons are known as slow or thermal neutrons. The absorption properties
of U-238 are very much reduced with thermal neutrons. Thus, if natural uranium is
bombarded by thermal or slow neutrons, the chain reaction can be maintained. This is
accomplished with the help of ‘moderator’ which is mixed with the fissile material in a
suitable manner.

Thus the purpose of moderator material in the reactor core is to moderate, or reduce the
neutron speeds to a value that increases the probability of fission occurrence.
3. Control Rods:
Control rods are meant for controlling the rate of fission of U-235. These are
made of boron-10, cadmium or hafnium that absorbs some of the slowed
neutrons.

In a reactor, nuclear chain reaction has to be initiated when started from cold,
and the chain reaction is to be maintained at a steady value during the
operation of reactor. Also the reactor must be able to shut down automatically
under emergency conditions. All this requires a control of reactor so as to
prevent the melting of fuel roads, disintegra­tion of coolant and destruction of
reactor as the amount of energy released is enormous.

Chain reaction is controlled either by removing the fuel rods or by inserting

neutron absorbing materials. The mate­rials used for control rods must have
very high absorption capacity for neutrons.

The control rods are inserted into the reactor core from the top of the reactor
vessel. These rods regulate the fissioning in the reactor by absorbing the
excess neutrons. These rods can be moved in and out of the holes in the
reactor core assembly. If the fissioning rate of the chain reaction is to be
increased, the control rods are moved out slightly so that they absorb less
number of neutrons and vice versa.
4. Coolant:

It is a medium through which the heat gen­erated in the reactor is transferred

to the heat exchanger for further utilisation in power generation. Sometimes
when water is used as a coolant it takes up heat and gets converted into steam
in the reactor which is directly used for driving steam turbines.

Coolant flows through and around the reactor core. It performs the additional
function of keeping the interior of reactor at the desired temperature.
Sometimes, the same medium is used as the coolant as well as the moderator
though sepa­rate materials are used more commonly.

A good coolant should not absorb neutrons, should be non-oxidising, non-toxic

and non-corrosive and have high chemical and radiation stability and good heat
transfer capa­bility.
5. Reflector:
A neutron reflector is placed around the core and used to avoid the
leakage of neutrons from the core. This completely surrounds the reactor
core within the thermal shielding arrangement and bounces back most of
the neutrons that escape from the fuel core. This conserves the nuclear
fuel, as the low speed neutrons thus returned are useful in continuing the
chain reaction.

The reflector gets heated due to collision of neutrons with its atom;
therefore, its cooling is essential. The reflector should have good neutron
scattering properties and preferably a small tendency to absorb neutrons.
It is often a moderating material and sometime the same material is used
both for moderator and reflector.
6. Thermal Shielding:

The shielding is usually constructed from iron and help in giving protection from
the deadly α- and β-particle radiations and γ rays as well as neutrons given off
by the process of fission with in the reactor. In this manner it gets heated and
prevents the reactor wall from getting heated. Coolant flows over the shielding
to take away the heat.

7. Reactor Vessel:

The reactor core, reflector and thermal shielding are all enclosed in the main
body of the reactor and are called the reactor vessel or tank. It is a strong
walled container and provides the entrance and exit for the coolant and also
the passages for its flow through and around the reactor core. There are holes
at the top to allow the control rods to pass through them. The reactor core
(fuel and moderator assembly) is usually placed at the bottom of the vessel.
The reactor vessel has to withstand high pressures (up to 21 MPa).
8. Biological Shield:

The whole of the reactor is enclosed in a biological shield to

prevent the escape or leak away of the fast neutrons, slow
neutrons, β-particles and γ rays as these radiations are very
harmful for living organisms. Lead iron or dense concrete
shields are used for this purpose.
Types of Nuclear Reactors
There are different types of nuclear reactors, all fission, to different nuclear
power plants. The UN classifies them as follows:

• The pressurized water reactor (PWR and VVER). They use high-pressure water

to produce steam for steam generators. They have three circuits. It is a kind
of light water reactor.

• The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR): The second most common in the world. The
water boils, generating steam directly in the reactor core. They have only two
circuits. It is a kind of light water reactor.

• The pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR): Uses high-pressure heavy water
as a neutron moderator and as a coolant.
• The gas-cooled reactor (GCR: AGR and Magnox): They
use graphite as a moderator of neutrons and carbon
dioxide in the gaseous state as a coolant.

• The light water-cooled graphite-moderated reactor

(LGR and RBMK): Models of Russian origin. "light water"
is normal water.

• The fast reactor (LBR, or LMFBR): It does not decelerate

the neutrons of the chain reaction and cools with liquid
sodium. They are in the prototype and research phase.
 What Are Nuclear Power Plants Used For?

The function of a nuclear power plant is to convert the energy contained in the
uranium atoms into electricity.

This type of power plant takes advantage of the energy contained in the atoms of
nuclear fuel. The conversion is achieved by splitting the nucleus of one of these
atoms, releasing a large amount of heat energy.

With heat energy, electrical energy can be obtained through a process similar to
that of any other type of thermoelectric plant. As in a conventional thermal power
plant, the heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to
a generator that produces electricity.

In the United States, 19% of the electricity Americans use comes from 97 nuclear
reactors. It is the highest number in any other country.

There are 444 commercial nuclear power reactors operating globally, with another
54 under construction and 111 planned, especially in China, India, and Russia. The
gigawatts of electricity produced for millions of people using these reactors have
not emitted air pollutants.
How Do Nuclear Power Plants
Generate Electricity?
In a nuclear power plant, energy is extracted from the
nucleus of uranium atoms by means of their division (nuclear
fission). Atoms have internal bonds that link their sub-
particles ( electrons, neutrons, and protons). When dividing,
these bonds break and release the internal binding energy
inside the atom that held the separated particles together.

Nuclear fission is caused by an artificial

and controlled way. To do this,
a neutron is fired at a very large atom.
This small particle, at a certain speed,
breaks the atom. When the nucleus
breaks, a large quantity of energy is
released in the form of heat: it is an
exothermic nuclear reaction.
 Drive of Nuclear
Power Plant Turbines
The heat obtained from nuclear reactions is
transferred to water using a heat exchanger. Water
is heated until it boils; water turns into steam at
very high pressure. With pressurized steam, the
blades of a turbine are made to move. In this way,
we have transformed thermal energy
into mechanical energy.

The turbine will be connected to an electric

generator. The generator is responsible for
transforming mechanical energy into electrical
energy. The plant is connected to the electricity
grid where it injects the energy generated.
 Are Nuclear Power
Stations Safe?
Nuclear power plants are some of the most
sophisticated and complex power systems ever
designed. Any complex system, no matter how
well designed and built, cannot be considered
fail-safe. Stephanie Cooke has said:

The reactors themselves were enormously

complex machines with an incalculable amount of
things that could go wrong. When that happened
at Three Mile Island in 1979, another line of
errors was exposed in the nuclear world.
One malfunction led to another, and this to another
series of errors, until the reactor core began to melt,
and even the most highly trained team of nuclear
engineers in the world did not know how to respond.

The accident revealed serious deficiencies in a system

whose mission was to protect the health and safety of
people.

A fundamental issue related to complexity is that

nuclear power systems have far exceeded their life
spans. The duration of projects from the beginning of
the construction of a commercial nuclear power plant,
to the safe disposal of its radioactive waste, can last
between 100 to 150 years.
 Human and Mechanical
Errors
There is concern that a combination of human and
mechanical errors in a nuclear installation could result in
significant harm to people and the environment.

Nuclear reactors can fail in a variety of ways. If the

instability of uranium fuel generates unexpected
behavior, it can result in an uncontrolled excursion of
energy. Typically, the cooling system in a reactor is
designed to be able to handle the excess heat that this
situation causes, however, if the reactor also experiences
an accidental loss of coolant, then the fuel can melt or
cause the container to be led to overheating and melts.
This event is known as a nuclear meltdown.
 They Are Vulnerable to Terrorist Attacks

Nuclear power plants are generally considered "hard" targets, although

this is not always the case.

New Generation Reactors

Most likely, the next nuclear plants to be built will be

Generation III or III + designs, and a few such plants are
already in operation in Japan. The reactor's Generation IV
will increase even higher in terms of security. These new
designs are expected to be passively safe or very close to
that, and perhaps even inherently safe (as in PBMR
designs ).
 Advantages of Nuclear Power
1.1. Nuclear Power Is a Clean Energy Source

Nuclear energy is the largest source of clean power not only in the United States but also in
many European countries. Nuclear power generates more than 800 billion kilowatt-hours of
electricity each year in the U.S and produces more than 55% of the nation’s emissions-free
electricity. This avoids more than 470 million metric tons of carbon each year, which is the
equivalent of removing 100 million cars off of the road. The thermal energy from nuclear
reactors may also be used to decarbonize other energy-intensive sectors such as
transportation – the largest contributor to carbon pollution.

1.2. Nuclear Power Is Reliable

While some energy sources are dependent upon weather conditions, like solar and wind
power, nuclear energy has no such constraints. It doesn’t matter if the wind isn’t blowing
or if the day is cloudy. Nuclear power plants are essentially unaffected by external climatic
factors and create predictable and steady energy output. A nuclear power plant in full-
swing operation can produce energy non-stop for an entire year, which allows for a good
return on investment because there is no delay in energy production.
Nuclear power plants are also reliable because we have enough uranium on the planet to
generate energy for the next 70-80 years. While that may not sound like a long time, it is
longer than many fossil fuels are estimated to last, and other nuclear energy sources are
being explored to power nuclear power plants.
1.3. Nuclear Power Has Zero Carbon Emissions

Nuclear power reactors do not produce any carbon emissions. This is a huge advantage over
traditional sources of energy, like fossil fuels, which releases tons of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
Excess carbon dioxide is one of the leading causes of climate change. So, the less carbon and
greenhouse gas emissions an energy source has, the better.
In fact, according to the Nuclear Energy Institute, nuclear electricity production prevents 528
million metric tons of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere annually.

1.4. Nuclear Power Is a Promising Future Energy Supply

Nuclear fusion is the holy grail of harnessing energy. If we can learn to control the atomic
fusion, we could practically have unlimited energy. At the moment, this method has some
serious challenges that need to be worked out if we are to start using them on a larger scale.
However, the potential it has is important to keep in mind when thinking about energy
generation in the future.

1.5. Nuclear Energy Creates Jobs

The nuclear industry supports nearly half a million jobs in the United States and contributes
an estimated $60 billion to the U.S. gross domestic product each year. U.S. nuclear plants
can employ up to 700 workers with salaries that are 30% higher than the local average. They
also contribute billions of dollars annually to local economies through federal and state tax
revenues.
1.6. Nuclear Power Is a Supply of Energy with a Good Availability

Like fossil fuels, the uranium used to supply nuclear power plants is in limited supply. However,
our uranium reserves are estimated to last another 80 years, whereas fossil fuels have a much
more limited lifespan. Since the Industrial Revolution, we have been consistently and constantly
depleting our fossil fuel reserves. If we continue consuming fossil fuels and keep increasing our
consumption as the world population grows, we are estimated to run out of oil by 2052, gas in
2060, and coal by 2088.
Of course, there are more fossil fuel discoveries we have yet to make, but they are fewer
and farther between than ever and will eventually run out. Switching to uranium might give us
the extra time we need to find better and cleaner renewable energy resources. Plus, some
countries like India, China, and Russia are already working towards using greener and more
abundant thorium to power nuclear reactors.
If we switch to thorium we will have even longer than 80 years of fuel available. However,
if scientists can turn nuclear fusion into a reality, we would theoretically never run out of
electricity ever again. Turning nuclear energy into sustainable energy requires the use of
breeder reactors and nuclear fusion to sustain us for the foreseeable future.

1.7. Nuclear Power Possesses High Energy Density

On our list of the pros and cons of nuclear energy, this advantage is quite astounding. Nuclear
fission (the process used to generate nuclear energy) releases much greater amounts of energy
than simply burning fossil fuels like gas, oil, or coal. How much more efficient? Nuclear fission is
nearly 8,000 times more efficient at producing energy than traditional fossil fuels. That’s a
considerable amount of energy density. Because nuclear energy is more efficient, it requires
less fuel to power the plant and therefore creates less waste as well.
 Nuclear Power Disadvantages
As we have already acknowledged, nuclear energy also has some disadvantages. From the cost
of building the equipment to the devastating effects, it has on our living environment. Let’s
take a closer look at some of the most important bad effects of nuclear energy in our lives.

2.1. It Has Environmental impacts and Consequences

Although nuclear power plants release zero carbon emissions, nuclear power still has a
substantial impact on the environment, mainly through mining and water discharge.
The uranium used to produce nuclear energy has to be mined. Mining of any kind harms the
surrounding area. Uranium mining in particular is known for releasing arsenic and radon. This
has had a negative impact on the health of those living around uranium mines, which consists
largely of members of the Navajo Nation.
Nuclear power plants also cause something called ‘thermal pollution’. Most nuclear
power plants are located on a body of water, like a lake or the ocean. The power plant uses
water from the lake or ocean, referred to as cooling water, to condense steam back into the
water.
This process causes the cooling water to increase in temperature and is then released
back into the body of water. This hot water, usually around 100 degrees Fahrenheit,
significantly changes the chemistry of the ocean or lake it is discharged into, making it
inhabitable to most aquatic life.
2.2. Nuclear Power Equipment Is Expensive to Build

Despite being relatively inexpensive to operate, nuclear power plants are incredibly expensive
to build—and the cost keeps rising. From 2002 to 2008 the estimated cost to build a nuclear
plant grew from $2-$4 billion to $9 billion, and power plants often surpass their cost estimates
during construction. In addition to the expense of building a power plant, nuclear plants must
also allocate funds to protect the waste they produce and keep it in cooled structures with
security procedures in place. All of these costs make nuclear power quite expensive.

2.3. Accidents are Likely

Nuclear power plants have very strict safety measures in place. However, accidents can
happen no matter how careful you are. A meltdown at a nuclear plant can have a catastrophic
impact on the surrounding areas, which we know from events like the Fukushima disaster,
Chernobyl, and Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania.
In the event of a nuclear meltdown, harmful radiation can leak, which can cause adverse
effects on the environment and human health. The 1986 incident at Chernobyl ultimately led
to thousands of deaths, with estimates ranging from 4,000 to 60,000 dead as a result of the
incident. Not only that, more than 2 million people are still struggling with health problems
related to Chernobyl. Today, over 30 years later, access is still limited within the 19-mile
Chernobyl exclusion zone.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that these types of accidents are rare. Plus,
many studies show that the fossil fuel industry is substantially more deadly than the nuclear
industry, even when you include catastrophes like Chernobyl.
2.4. Nuclear Energy Carries Radioactive Waste

Although nuclear energy production does not create any emissions, it does produce
radioactive waste that must be securely stored so it doesn’t pollute the environment. While
radiation might sound scary, we are constantly exposed to small amounts of radioactivity
from cosmic rays or radon in the air we breathe. In small quantities, radiation isn’t harmful—
but the radioactive waste from nuclear energy production is incredibly dangerous.

The storage of radioactive waste is a major challenge facing nuclear power plants. Because
there’s no way to destroy nuclear waste, the current solution is to seal it securely in
containers and store it deep underground where it can’t contaminate the environment. As
technology improves, we will hopefully find better ways of storing radioactive waste in the
future.
2.5. It Is Non-renewable

A renewable energy resource is defined as a source of energy that is not depleted when it is
used, or that can be replenished within a human lifetime. Solar power is an example of a
renewable resource because as we turn solar energy into usable electricity, we do not
decrease the power of the sun.
Nuclear energy, on the other hand, is a non-renewable energy source. This is because
the fuel used in nuclear reactors, uranium, is a finite resource. As we mine uranium, we
deplete the available amount, and more will not be produced within a human lifetime.
Right now, experts believe that there is about 200 years’ worth of uranium available,
assuming we stay at the same rate of nuclear production. But, if we become more reliant on
nuclear power in the future, the supply of uranium will deplete faster, which may cause
problems in the years ahead.

2.6. It Can be the Source of Security Threat

Nuclear power presents a unique threat to our national security because it is powered by
nuclear energy. Terrorists might target nuclear power plants to create a disaster, and the
uranium used to produce the power can be turned into nuclear weapons if they end up in
the wrong hands. For these reasons, security surrounding nuclear materials and nuclear
power plants is extremely important.
THAT’S
ALL
THANK
YOU!!!