FISHERIES EXTENSION EDUCATION

(FEX-221)

Faisal
Lesson Academy Dehradun ( 7310906842)
S.N. Topic No. of
lectures
1 History and role of Fisheries Extension Education in India 1
2 Introduction to fisheries extension, concepts, objectives and 1
principles
3 Extension Education, formal and informal education 1
4 Fisheries extension methods, individual, group and mass contact 1
methods
5 Characteristics of technology, technology transfer 1
6 TOT program in fisheries, role of NGOs and SHGs in fisheries 1
7 Fisheries co-management 1
8 Adoption and diffusion process 1
9 Adopter categories and barriers in diffusion of fisheries innovations 1
10 Extension program planning and evaluation 1
11 Steps and importance of planning; participatory planning process 1
12 Basic concepts of Rural Sociology and its relevance in fisheries 1
extension
13 Rural Social, meaning and importance, features of rural societies of 1
fishermen
14 Social change, Social control, Social problems and conflicts in 1
fisheries
15 Anthropology, Socio-economic and demography of fisheries 1
16 Gender issues in fisheries, theories of learning, learning experiences 1
and situation
17 Migration and pattern of settlement of fishermen societies, 1
18 Social groups and classes, caste and class among fisheries 1
19 Village level institutes and voluntary organizations 1
20 Globalization and fisheries 1
21 Basic concepts of Psychology and its relevance in fisheries extension 1
22 Principles, Scope and importance of Psychology in fisheries extension 1
23 Terms in Psychology, intelligence, personality types, perception 1
24 Motivation, meaning , classification of needs 1
25 Techniques and importance in fisheries extension, Training centers in 1
fisheries sector
26 Introduction to LLP, IVLP, T&V, FLD, and OFR 1

27 Organizational setup and working of FFDA, Training and 1

Education,
28 Communication, meaning , concept, elements, feed back 1
29 National and International working policies and setup of fisheries 1
30 PRA and RRA techniques 1
 Practicals
1 Collection of Socio-economic data from fishermen 1
2 Study of social issues, problems through PRA and RRA 1
3 Stake holders analysis and needs assessment 1
4 Study of different extension publications 1
5 Study of different audio-visual systems 1
6 Preparation of extension publication 1
7 Case study on social issues in fisheries 1
8 Case study on gender issues in fisheries 1
9 Case study on social conflicts in fisheries 1
10 Case study of fishermen village 1
11 Role of women in fisheries 1
12 Study on different NGOs and SHGs involeved in fisheries 1
13 Study of FFDA and BFDA 1
14 Success story of extension work of fisheries 1
15 Practical exercises for fishermen 1
16 Preparation of exhibits for displaying 1
17 Study of National Institutes, Univ., Research Centers related to fisheries 1
18 Study of International Institutes , Univ., Research Centers related to fisheries 1
19 Preparation for radio talk and TV talk 1
20 Group discussion and Skit of fisheries 1
 Introduction to Extension
‡The word ‘Extension’ is derived from the Latin roots ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’
and ‘tension’ ‘stretching’. Extension is that type of education which
stretched out to people in the rural areas far and near, beyond the limits
of the educational institutions which the formal type of education is
usually confined.‡
Extension education is a science which deals with various strategies
of change in the behavioral patterns of human beings through
technological and scientific innovation for the improvement of their
standard of living.
Extension is an education system, and its aim is to bring in desirable
changes in human behaviour.
Education should be conceived as life-long process of learning.
Extension methods are used to educate rural people outside regularly
organised schools & class rooms brining out social & cultural
development.
Extension means to extend & to spread useful information & ideas to
rural people.
The term extension was first used in the United States of
America in the first decade of this century to con notes the
extension of knowledge from land grant colleges to the
farmers through the process of informal education. 
In India, extension work was primarily started by F. L.
Brayne (1920) in Punjab the term community development.
Extension education became more popular with the
launching of community development projects in 1952 and
with the establishment of the national extension service in
1953.
• The National Commission of Agriculture (1976) refers to
extension as an informal out-of-school education and services
for the members of the farm, family & others directly or
indirectly engaged in farm production, management,
conservation and marketing.
 Extension Education
‡It can be defined as educational process to provide
knowledge to the rural people about the improved
practices in the convincing manner and to help them
to take decision within their specific local condition.
Importance of Extension Education:
Extension uses democratic methods in educating the
farmers.
Extension Helps in adoption of innovations.
Extension helps in studying and solving the rural problems.
Extension increases farm yields and improve the standard of
living of farmers
Extension makes good communities better and progressive.
Extension contributes to national development programmes.
 Scope of Extension
The scope of extension education includes all the activities directed
towards the development of rural people. The extension service must
have dynamic programme keeping pace with the constantly changing
conditions.
To increase efficiency in agriculture production which help to uplift the
socioeconomic condition of the farmers .
To increase efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization of
agricultural inputs and outputs .
Conservation, development and use of natural resources.
Proper farm and home management
Better Family living.
Youth development.
Leadership development.
Community and rural development (C D & R D).
Improving public affairs for all round development.
 Concept of Extension Education
Extension education tries to develop the social behaviour of the people. It
also tries to bring out cultural development. The behaviour of individual
influenced and directed by culture. The extension education helps in
bringing the gap created by the cultural lag by advising means of
adjustment in the new environment. Extension education is a teaching (non
formal) and learning process. It tries to bring out 3 types of changes in
human behaviour.
1. Changes in knowledge and things known.
2. Changes in things skills and things done.
3. Changes in attitude or things felt
Changes in knowledge
Changes in skill Development of individual
Changes in attitude

Development of society or community

 Objectives‡
Objectives give direction of movement. Before starting any
extension programme, its objectives must be clearly stated,
so that one knows where to go, and what is to be achieved.
To raise the standard of living of the rural people by
helping them in right use of their resources.
To help in planning and implementing the family and
village plans for increasing production in various
occupations.
To provide facilities for better family living.
Specific Objectives:
To assist people to discover and analyse their problems & identify their felt
needs.
‡To develop leadership among people and help them in organising groups
to solve their problems.
To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance
in a way people would be able to understand and use.
To assist people in mobilising and utilising resources which they have and
which they need from outside.
To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management
problems.
To help rural families in better appreciation of SWOT in the village.
To open new opportunities for developing talents and leadership of rural
people.
To build rural citizens who are:
• Proud of their occupation
• Independent in thinking.
• Constructive in outlook.
• capable, efficient and self-reliant in character
• having love of home and country m their heart
 Need of extension education
New innovations are giving rise to new technologies
to improve the production & development of the
country is related with the ability of farmer’s
understanding and adoption of new technology by
farmers. It is really difficult for all the farmers to visit
research stations and to get first hand information.
So there is a need of some agency to interpret the
finding of the research stations to the farmers and to
carry problems of farmers to the research station
that is ‘lab to land and land to lab’ this gap is filled
up by extension education.
 Basic Elements of Rural Development 
There are at least three basic elements which are considered to constitute
the ‘true’ meaning of rural development.  They are as follows: (1977).
1.   Basic Necessities of Life:
People have certain basic needs, include food, clothes, shelter, basic literacy,
primary health care and security of life and property.  When any one or all of
them are absent or in critically short supply, we may state that a condition of
‘absolute underdevelopment’ exists.  Provision of the basic necessities of life
to everybody is the primary responsibility of all economies, whether they are
capitalist, socialist, or mixed‘ i.e. quality of life’ or rural people. 
2.  Self Respect:
Every person and every nation seeks some sort of self-respect, dignity or
honour.  Absence or denial of self-respect indicates lack of development.
3.  Freedom:
In this context, freedom refers to political or ideological freedom, economic
freedom and freedom from social servitude.  As long as society is bound by
the servitude of men to nature, ignorance, other men, institutions and
dogmatic beliefs, it can not claim to have achieved the goal of ‘development’.
Servitude in any from reflects a state of underdevelopment.
 Philosophy of Extension Education
Philosophy is a body of general principles or laws of a field of
knowledge; it provides guidelines for performing the activities
in life in a particular way. Different individuals have different
philosophies of life, e.g. the traditional minded farmer and
progressive farmer may react differently to the concept of
artificial insemination of cows.
Philosophy of extension education includes the principles or
guidelines with which to shape or mould the developmental
programmes relating to that field. It provides to extension
worker the basis for working out the programmes and the
policies to be adopted in extension work.
The philosophy of extension can be expressed as following
statements-
1. Extension has a philosophy of culture:
a. It respects culture of people.
b. It brings about cultural change through cultural development.
2. Extension has philosophy of social progress:
a. Its works is based on needs and desires of the people
b. It facilitates change and help people to adjust with them.
3. Extension has philosophy of education for all:
a. Extension is a continuous education process to change attitude.
b. Disseminates useful knowledge and skills to all people.
c. Regardless of personal, social and economic characteristics.
4. Extension has philosophy concerning teaching:
a. the people what to want to learn and the way to satisfy their wants.
b. It teaches by doing: This is learning by doing.
i. Hearing – doubtful
ii. Seeing – possibly doubtful
iii. Do – believe
c. It reaches people to practice themselves.
d. Teaching is inadequate till the knowledge is put into practice
5. Extension has philosophy of leadership:
a. Teaches, educates, and stimulates people through local
leaders.
b. Utilizes assistance of voluntary leaders.
c. Locates, trains and uses functional leaders.
d. Extension trusts in what it can get others to do.
6. Extension has philosophy of local responsibility:
a. Encourages people to contribute increasingly in their own
affairs.
b. Prepares suitable leaders to determine programmes and plans.
7. Extension has philosophy about truth:
Extension is working with the men and women young people, boys
and girls to answer their needs and their wants.
a. Sells or applied only proven facts.
b. Realise that going beyond truth will loose people’s faith in
extension.
c. Continuously seeks new truth as today’s whole truth may be
tomorrow’s partial truth.
8. Extension has philosophy of democracy:
a. Functions only with voluntary co-operation of the people.
b. Co-operation with the individuals, groups and institutions
interested in common welfare.
c. Selects and solves the problems based on the felt needs
through group action.
d. Democratic in organization.
9. Extension has philosophy of a dignity of individual and his
profession:
a. Believes that each individual is endowed certain inalienable
rights.
b. Dignifies the farm, home and family.
c. Extension is living relationship respect and trust for each other.
10. Extension personnel have philosophical characteristics:
a. Extension personnel have the right attitude, integrity and high
sense of service.
b. Extension personnel have deep faith that man does not alive
with bread alone.
c. It is a two way channel.
 Basic Principles of Extn. Education
A principle is a universal truth that has been observed and found to be
truth and a settled rule of action. The knowledge of principles is
necessary for an extension worker.
The principles of extension education are given hereunder:
1. Principle of cultural difference:
People differ in thinking, living and culture.
Extension education methods should be in line with these
differences.
It is difficult to recognize non-material culture than material
culture.
The blue print of extension programme for one area may not suit
to other areas.
Changes will have to be made in the programmes according to
changing situations.
2. Principle of cultural change:
Culture undergoes change due to extension.
Change occurs otherwise also.
Extension Workers should gain the confidence of people.
Extension workers should organize result demonstration.
After increasing production, the Extension workers should
concentrate on marketing.
Extension workers have to change to meet the cultural changes
among the people.
3. Principle of grass-root organization:
Extension workers should pay attention to all the groups’ needs
and interests.
Imposed innovations have no relevance to groups.
People will accept the innovations only when they find those
useful.
To be successful, extension work must start where people are ;
after studying situation, needs, interests and problems of the
people.
4. Principle of interests and needs:
People and extension workers should work together.
Co-operation and help of each other needed for social upliftment.
People should voluntarily participate.
Work should start from interests and needs of people.
Fulfillment of needs create interests.
First concentrate on felt needs and then develop felt needs.
5. Principle of participation:
Attachment will not develop by offering ready made things.
Participation develops leadership and increases confidence.
Involving leaders increases people’s participation.
6. Principle of adaptability in the use of teaching methods:
Extension is a system of voluntary education.
People differ in knowledge and understanding.
Method should vary accordingly.
Use of more than one method is beneficial.
If needed new methods must be devised to meet new situations.
7. Principle of local leadership:
It may not be possible for an extension worker to visit all farmers
individually. Much can be done through local leaders.
Extension workers should utilize local leadership for increasing
speed of work.
Identification, training and encouragement of leaders is necessary.
8. Principle trained specialists:
Agricultural and other sciences are developing speedily.
Maintaining competency in any of these sciences is a continuous
process.
Without specialist’s support the extension cannot strive.
SMS is responsible to solve the extension workers problems.
Subjects Matter Specialist (SMS) is a link between research and
application of research.
SMS should have broad outlook and be well versed.
9. Principle of satisfaction:
The extension programme should give satisfaction to the people.
People will not participate if they do not get satisfaction.
10. Principle of whole family approach:
Extension work should reach all the family members.
Neglecting any member may result in rejection of innovations
e.g. Hybrid  maize in U.P.
11. Principle of evaluation:
Determining the research results in unbiased way is necessary.
Intermittent review of progress is necessary.
Corrective measures are needed if the direction is found wrong.
Behavioural changes should be measured.
Evaluation helps in improving the quality of work.
12. Principle of applied Science and Democracy:
People have freedom to accept or reject the technology.
Applied agricultural Science is a two way process.
13. Principle of Learning by doing:
Extension work is based on the principles of ‘learning by doing’ and ‘seeing is
believing'. Farmers hesitate to believe and act on theories, or even facts until,
until they see with their own eyes the proof of these in material form. That is
why, demonstrations have a great significance in extension.
14. Co-operation and participation principle:
Co-operation is the basis for existence of an extension service.
People who have opportunity in participating in making
decisions affecting their well-being are likely to act in
accordance with their decision.
15. Democratic approach:
Extension operates through discussion and suggestion.
Facts of a situation are shared with people.
All possible alternative solutions are placed before the
participants and ultimately people are left free to decide their
own choice and line of action.
16. Use of local resources:
Extension worker should make full use of local resources, both
human and material, viz. traditional media of communication in
executing various programmes.
Some more Other Principles:
The citizen is the Sovereign (Supreme) in the democracy.
Home is the fundamental unit of civilization.
Family is the first training group of the human race.
Average farm is endowed with great resources and
facilities.
Aided self-help: Extension agencies should provide them
the necessary aid to help in their efforts towards
change.
 History of Extension
1. Sriniketan (Shantiniketan Project):
In 1908 Initiated by Shri. Rabandranath Tagore by establishing youth organization in
the Kaligram Progana of his Zamindari.
In 1921 he established a Rural Reconstruction Institute at Shantiniketan in West
Bengal.  A group of eight villages was the centre of the programme.
Methods to Achieve the Objectives:
1. Creating a spirit of self help.
2. Developing village leadership.
3. Organizing village scouts called “Brati Balika”.
Objectives:
1. To create a real interest in people for rural welfare work.
2. To study rural problems and to translate conclusions into action.
3. To help villagers develop their resources.
4. To improve village sanitation.
Activities/ Silent Features
1. Demonstrations on farmers’ fields.
2. Dairy to supply pure milk and animals to farmers or breeding.
3. Poultry farm.
4. Training and organizing the weavers.
5. Training in tanning, pottery, embroidery, tailoring etc.
6. Film shows, meetings, village meals.
Short Comings:
1. Too much emphasis on ‘Center’.
2. Confined to limited villages.
3.Tagore’s interest in ‘idea’ catching on.
2. Gurgaon Project
Started by Mr. F.I. Brayne, Dy. Commissioner in the Gurgaon district of Punjab in 1920 as
Cooperative Department and Better Living Societies were organized to take up this work in the
villages in 1935-36.
Objectives
1. To increase agricultural production.
2. To stop wastage of money on social and religious functions.
3. To improve healthy standard of the people.
4. To organize welfare programmes.
Activities
1. Appointment of village guides.
2. Propaganda through films, folk songs, dramas etc.
3. Rural Economics and domestic Economics Schools.
Short Comings:
1. A one man show.
2. Village guides were un-experienced and untrained.
3. No comprehensive planning.
4. No continuity in the work.
5. Limited to few villages.
6. Force not persuasion.
 3. Sewagram Attempt
It was started under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi as All India Spinners Association
in 1920 and later as All India Village Industries Association at Wardha in 1933.
The Key Words of his Economy were:
1. Decentralize production and equal distribution of wealth and
2. Self sufficiency of Indian Villages.
Objectives
1. To provide service to the under privileged.
2. To achieve self dependency.
3. To provide basic education to people.
Activities:
1. Promotion of village industries.
2. Basic and adult education.
3. Rural sanitation.
4. Upliftment of backward communities.
5.  Upliftment of women.
6. Education in public health and hygiene.
7. Propagation of national language.
8. Love for the mother tongue.
9. Economic equality.
10. Organization of Kisans, Labours, Students and so on.
 4. Marathandam Attempt
This project was started in 1921 by Mr. Spencer Hatch, an American Agricultural Expert in
Travancore State under the auspices of Y.M.C.A.(Young Men’s Christian Association).
Objective:
To bring about completed upward development towards a more abundant life for rural
people spiritually, mentally, physically, socially and economically.
Activities:
1. Self help with intimate expert counsel working principles of the centre.
2. Agriculture.
3. Cottage Industries.
4. Community projects.
5. Bee Keeping.
7. Poultry Keeping etc.
Strong Points:
1. Special training of staff, their enthusiasm and sincerity was developed.
2. A comprehensive plan.
3. Started with the existing conditions.
4. Low cost.
Short Comings:
1. Lack of adequate funds.
2. Lack of Government banking.
3. Lack of continuous contacts with the villagers.
4. Religious standing of the institution.
 5. Firka Development Project
The scheme was launched in 1946 in 34 Firkas (group of 5 villages) throughout
the state (Madras province), and on April 1, 1950, it was extended to another
50 additional Firkas at the rate of two Firkas for each state. 
Objectives:
1. Rural Reconstructionin short and long term,
2. Supply of Drinking water facilities,
3. Sanitation
4. Organization of Cooperatives
5. Agriculture and Khadi and other village industries development
Activities:
1. Supervision by District collector , Naib Tehsildar, Gram Sevakas provided with
special staffs like agricultural field men, administrative officers, Ministers, PWD
supervisors and minor irrigation overseers.
Short comings:
1. Efforts were restricted in scopes and lacked coordination
2. Lack of direction. Support and encouragement from the central authority
3. There was no extension programme which is implemented without the
help and co-operation of local people could continue
 6. Etawah Pilot Project
Started by Lt. Col. Albert Mayer of USA in1948 at Mahewa Village about 11 miles
away from Etawah in United Province. Initially 64 villages were selected which then
increased to 97. The Government of UP and Point-4 programme of U.S.A. provided
help for this project.
Objectives:
1. To see the extent of improvement possible in an average district.
2. To see how quickly results could be achieved.
3. To ascertain the permanency and applicability of results to other areas.
4. To find out methods of gaining and growing confidence of the villagers.
5. To build up a sense of community living.
6. To build up a spirit of self help in the villagers.
Activities:
1. Broadening the mental horizons of the villagers by educative and persuasive
manner.
2. Training of village level workers.
3. Co-ordination between Departments and Agencies.
4. Conducting demonstrations.
5. Covered subjects like crop yields, soil conservations, animal husbandry sanitation
and social education.
Strong Points:
Villager’s participation through planning and integrated approach.
 7. Indian Village Services (IVS)
Started in 1945 by Mr. Arther T. Marsher of Newyork and Shri B.
N. Gupta
Objectives
To assist village people for developing individuals and local agencies
The techniques adopted for the above objectives were personal
contacts, group discussions, use of visual aids, exhibition, tours, trips
and dramas, Books and periodicals..
This was financially supported by contribution and donation.
Assisting government in developing villages.
Activities:
Programme should be based on felt needs and should be clear to
people.
There should be non-institutional procedure to contact with villagers.
Programme should be made clear to people by demonstration and
exhibition.
Programme should not be conducted before bench mark study.
There should be arrangement of training for village people.
 8. Intensive Agricultural District Programme (I A D P)
community development programme by the government in
collaboration with Ford Foundation launched the intensive
agricultural district programme, which is popularly known as the
package programme. 
The programme was started in July 1960 in 7 selected districts in
various states. These were
1. Godavari (A.P.),
2. Shahabad (Bihar),
3. Tanjore (Madras),
4. Raipur (M.P.),
5. Ludhiana (Punjab),
6. Pali (Rajasthan),
7. Aligarh (U.P.)
The significant feature : cooperative institutions have become
the agency for distribution of credit and supply of agricultural
inputs which were essential for implementing the programme.
Objectives:
The district selected throughout the country under this programme are
pali, thanjavur, West-Godavari, Shahabad, Raipur, Aligarh, Ludhiana,
Aleppey, palght, Mandga, Surat, Sambalpur, Bardwan, Bhandeva and
Cochar.
To increase the income of the cultivator and his family.
To increase the economic resources and potential of the village.
To create employment facilities.
To demonstrate the most effective ways of expansion of the
national food production technology by co-operative efforts
between officials and not-officials, villagers and individual
cultivators.
Activities:
The following points were kept as the minimum criteria for selection
of the district for IADP:
1. Districts have adequate supply of water.
2. Should have minimum natural hazards.
3. They have well developed village industry.
4. They have maximum potential to increase agricultural and
animal production.
 9. National Extension Service
Rural development activities under Government sponsorship was started with the
introduction of community development programme on 2nd October 1952. 
The National Extension Service programme was formulated in April 1953 and it
was inaugurated one year after the 55 community projects that is, on October 2, 1953.
The idea behind the National Extension Service Programme was to cover the
entire country within a period of about 10 years, that is to say, by 1960-61.
Objectives and Activities
To explain the inter-relation between the community development programme
and the National Extension service and will cover the whole country.
It provides the basic organization, official, non-official and a minimum financial
provision for development.
funds will be found from the central Government and the State’s own allotments
under different heads. 
This intensive development will depend on the available financial resources and
local support and local support and enthusiasm.
It represents on an average 100 villages, with a population of 60,000 to 70,000
persons spread over an area of 150 to170 square miles. 
Organization Setup:    At
  Center Level State Level District Level Block Level Village Level 
Villagers                       
 10. Nilokheri Project:
Shri S.K. Dey later Union Minister for community Development and
Cooperatives up to 1965 was the central figure of this project.
It was originally started to rehabilitate 7000 displaced persons from Pakistan.
Later it was integrated with 100 surrounding villages making a rural cum urban
township. The scheme was called as “Mazdoor Manzil”.
Objectives:
1. Rehabilitation of the displaced persons from Pakistan.
2. Self sufficiency for the township in all the essential requirements of life.
Activities:
3. School
4. Agricultural Farm
5. Poly-Technique training centre
6. Dairy, Poultry Farm, Piggery Farm
7. Horticultural Garden
8. Printing Press
9. Garment Factory, Soap Factory
10.Engineering workshop
 11. High Yielding Varieties Programme (H.Y.V.P.)
It was introduced in 1964-65 with a new dimension of agricultural
production created in the community development project. 
Objectives:
HYV of Wheat, Paddy and introduced in selected 100 districts but
later on it spread in other area also. 
The objective of this programme is to adopt HYV for maximum
production.
Activities:
Optimizing the yields of the available high yielding varieties of rice, it
has been found necessary to advance their sowing time. 
Efforts were directed to educate the farmers to raise rice nurseries
in advance of the main kharif season. 
A special programme for timely supply of seedlings, by raising
community nurseries at tube-well points and on government farms,
was undertaken in three command areas in Bihar.
This programme has given encouraging results and is being
extended to Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa
and West Bengal during 1975 kharif.
 12. Reorganized Extension System (Training & Visit Programme)
This system was introduced in 1974 in Rajastan Canal area in
Rajasthan and Chambal Command area in Madhya Pradesh with the
World Bank assistance. 
This system will be further extended in the remaining states of the
country by 1985. 
In two and a half decades, T & V became the dominant method of
restructuring the extension services in over sixty countries in Asia,
Africa and Latin America. 
Objectives:
The system tries to achieve changes in production technologies used by
the majority of farmers through assistance form well trained extension
agents who have close links with agricultural research and supported by
supply, service and marketing facilities.
Coordinating research, training and extension activities effectively.
To make research more effective by catering to the local needs and
situation.
To evolve an intensive training program on a systematic basic for
extension workers and farmers and to ensure effective supervision
and technical support.
Activities:
T & V was regarded as an improved management system of
agricultural extension and had the following key features-
1.   Professionalism: Extension Workers
2.   Single Line of Command: Technical & administrative
3.   Concentration of Effort: Only on agricultural extension
4.   Time-bound Work: regular and time framework
5.   Field and Farmer Orientation: Regular visit and contact
6.   Regular and Continuous Training: farmers and staffs
7.   Linkages with Research: organizations & institutions
13. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (farmers’ Science Centre)
The ICAR Standing Committee on Agricultural Education, in its meeting
held in August, 1973, observed that since the establishment of Krishi
Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) was of national importance which would help in
accelerating the agricultural production as also in improving the socio-
economic conditions of the farming community.
The ICAR mooted the idea of establishing KVK as innovative institution
for imparting vocational training to the practising farmers, school dropouts
and field leve extension functionaries.
Aim
The aim of the portal is to transfer the technologies developed by the
agricultural scientists to the farmers in a fast and effective manner using
web and mobile technology as well as to monitor the activities of Krishi
Vigyan Kendras (KVKs).
The first KVK, on a pilot basis, was established in 1974 at Puducherry
(Pondicherry) under the administrative control of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore. At present there are 680 KVKs, out of which 493
are under State Agricultural Universities (SAU) and Central Agricultural
University (CAU), 55 under ICAR Institutes, 100 under NGOs, 35 under
State Governments, and the remaining 17 under other educational
institutions.
Objectives
To create a platform to monitor the various activities as well
as resource utilization by various KVKs;
To create a database of the various programmes organized
by the KVKs along with their detailed information and learning
resources;
To help the farmers in resolving their queries using web and
mobile technologies;
To provide information about various facilities and activities
performed by the KVKs and to provide linkage to other
important information such as weather and market
information.
Activities 
Mandates of the KVK
To conduct “On Farm Testing” for identifying technologies in terms of
location specific sustainable land use systems.
To organize front-line demonstration on various crops to generate
production data and feedback information.
To organise training to update the extension personnel with
emerging advances in agricultural research on regular basis.
To organize short and long term vocational training courses in
agriculture and allied vocations for the farmers and rural youth with
emphasis on “Learning by doing”  for higher production on farms and
generating self employment.
Work as resource and knowledge centre of agricultural technology
Other Extension Activities: The KVK participates and organizes Field
days, Exhibitions, Kisan Mela, Farmers’ Field School, Farm Advisory
Services, Soil and Water testing awareness Camps, Ex-trainees meet,
Animal Health Camps etc.
Focus of the KVK
The KVK provides services in the areas of Crop Production, Horticulture,
Animal Science (Livestock and Poultry), Plant Protection, Fisheries and
Women in Agriculture. The other services of KVK are towards soil and water
testing, supply of critical inputs for entrepreneurship, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of State and Central sponsored programs. 
The KVK also conducts Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) meeting every
year for approval of the programmes and other activities involving different
stakeholders of the district.
KVK focuses on 
 Crop diversification
 Varietal Replacement 
 Integrated Nutrient Management
 Integrated Pest and Disease Management 
 Breed improvement
 Poultry production
 Feed & fodder management
 Fish and fish seed production
 Integrated fish farming 
 Value addition & processing
 Women empowerment and 
 Natural Resource Management
Services and Facilities
Services
Demonstrations: Farmers can participate in conducting
demonstrations & trials on their fields initiated by the KVK.
Trainings: The KVK conducts On and Off Campus trainings.
 On Campus: Farmers can register to attend different training
programs. Off Campus: Training at farmers’ villages for small
groups. Special trainings can also be arranged for organizing
on topics of their choice. 
Farm and Home Visit: Farmers can request concerned
Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) of KVK to visit to their
problematic fields for getting diagnostic and curative
recommendations.
Advisory Roles: Farmers can interact with SMS of KVK and
seek advices on issues related to agriculture, allied sectors and
information on advanced agricultural techniques/technologies.
Exposure visits: Farmers on study tour can have exposure on
the demonstration units of KVK. 
 Soil and Water Testing: Farmers, institutions and organizations can
get their soil, water samples tested upon providing samples. 
Extension Activities: Farmers can participate in extension activities
conducted by the KVK like Technology Week, Exhibitions, Farmer-
Scientist Interaction, Kisan Mela, Study tours, Field days by prior
registration. 
Availability of Infrastructure: Organizations willing to conduct
trainings for the farmers can use the conference hall and audio visual
aids on nominal charges
Farmers’ Hostel: Farmers can stay in our hostel after paying
nominal charges
Facilities
The KVK has its own administrative building with different demonstration
units, farm, water bodies and soil and water testing laboratory. To
conduct training programmes the KVK has well furnished conference
Hall with all modern Audio-Visual Aids (AV Aids). The KVK also has a
Farmers’ Hostel and dining facilities. A computer lab fully equipped with
modern equipments serves as a Key Documentation Centre with the
ERNET project of ICAR.
Research-Extension Linkage
The KVK works with different Research and Development agencies in
the district for collaboration, joint implementation of programs and for
different activities. Some of the Research-Extension linkage
modes/mechanism and activities are: 
Extension arm of Institution
Scientists are closely associated for technology dissemination,
assessment and Refinement 
Line Department as member in SAC of KVK
Planning and execution of training for extension functionaries
Involvement of block level extension officers in survey and off
campus demonstration
Organizing Kisan Mela at different locations 
Procurement of inputs from different departments for development
works
Participation in farmer-scientist interface meeting of the State
Government
Member in the Governing Body of ATMA
Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation of ATMA programs of
District
 Training programmes by KVK’s
The courses engaged at KVK’s are of short duration (1-7 days or 1
month) and only field level extension staff like village level workers
are trained at KVKs. The following types of training programmes can
be provided such as:
Cultivation of local crops.
Application of package of practices.
Farm planning and plant protection.‡
Care and feeding of animals.
Poultry keeping.‡
Irrigation and water control.‡
Nutrition cooking and hygiene.‡
Food processing and cooking.‡
Marketing and agricultural projects.
Catching and marketing of fish.
Preparation of fishery byproducts etc.
Krishi Vigyan Kendras No.of KVKs Zone VI, Guwahati- 44 KVKs
Total KVK -680 Assam 25
Arunanchal Pradesh 15
Sikkim 04

Zone I, Ludhiana – 69 KVKs Zone VII, Barapani– 42 KVKs

Himachal Pradesh 13 Manipur 09
Jammu and Kashmir 21 Meghalaya 07
Punjab 22 Mizoram 08
Uttarakhand 13 Nagaland 11
Tripura 07

Zone II, Jodhpur– 61 KVKsDelhi Zone VIII, Pune– 77 KVKs

Haryana 01 Maharashtra 45
Rajasthan 18 Gujarat 30
42 Goa 02

Zone III, Kanpur– 69 KVKs Zone IX, Jabalpur– 76 KVKs

Uttar Pradesh 69 Chhattis Garh 25
Madhya Pradesh 51

Zone IV, Patna– 63 KVKs Zone X, Hyderabad– 73 KVKs

Bihar 39 Tamilnadu 30
JharKhand 24 Puducherry 03
Andhra Pradesh 24
Telengana 16

Zone V, Kolkata– 58 KVKs Zone XI, Bengaluru– 48 KVKs

A & N Islands 03 Karnataka 33
Odissa 33 Kerala 14
Bengal 22 Lakshadweep 01
The success of these KVK’s is ensured if progress are
made. They should involve the local community in skills
according to stages of development in agriculture and
density of population.
To improve socio-economic condition for better living
standard of the members, woman play an important role
in agricultural production particularly in the post-harvest
operation. Therefore, woman’s training programme to
increase their efficiency in agricultural operation and to
improve the family living are also important.
The training programmes should be need based courses of
few week duration or for few months or may be for longer
duration of 1-2 years. There may be part-time or full-time
educational programme.
 14. Institution Village Linkage Programme (I V L P):
an innovative programme initiated by the Indian council of
Agricultural Research (ICRA) on a pilot basis form 1995-96 which
was later brought under World Bank funded National Agricultural
Technology project (NATP) since 1999. 
The significance of client oriented projects received higher
attention among had policy makers, which led to the concept,
Technology Assessment and Refinement through IVLP.
Objectives:
1. To introduce technological interventions with emphasis on
stability and sustainability along with productivity of small farm
production system.
2. To introduce and integrate the appropriate technologies to
sustain technological interventions and their integration to
maintain productivity and profitability.
3. To facilitate adoption of appropriate post-harvest technologies
for conservation and on-farm value addition of agricultural
products, by products and wastes for greater economic
4. To facilitate adoption of appropriate technologies for removal of
drudgery increased efficiency and higher income of farm
women.
5. To monitor socio-economic impact of the technology
intervention for different farm production system.
7. To identify extrapolation domains for new technology modules
based on environmental characterization at meso and mega
level.
It is different from the earlier first line extension efforts of ICAR,
in sense that it lays emphasis on the research aspect through the
participation of farmers to be carried out by the multidisciplinary
team of scientists. Moreover, IVLP is a production system oriented
project with agro-ecosystem analysis of the adopted villages as
the basis of identify problems, priorities them and final out
technological intervention point which are further developed into
action plants to overcome the problems through assessment and
refinement of technologies.
 15. National Agriculture Technology Project (N A T P):
This project was launched by the ICAR on June 30, 1998, with the support
of the World Bank to strengthen and complement the existing resources
and to argument the output National Agricultural Research System (NARS).
Objectives:
To accelerate the flow of technology form research, and extension to
farmer.
Improve the dissemination of location specific and sustainability
enhancing technologies.
Decentralize technical and decision making authority to the district level.
Create a more effective and financially sustainable public extension
system.
Step up the privatization of certain technology transfer activities.
Activities:
Pilot testing new institutional arrangements for technology dissemination
through ATMA.
Moving towards integrated extension delivery.
Bottom up planning procedures for setting the Research Extension
agendas.
Addressing gender concern in agriculture
Increasing use of information technology for effective dissemination.
 16. Agricultural Technology Management Agency (A T M A)
The ATMA at district level would be increasingly responsible for all the
technology dissemination activities at the district level.  It would have linkage
with all the line departments, research organizations, non-governmental
organizations and agencies associated with agricultural development in the
district. Research and Extension units within the project districts such as ZRS
or substations. KVKs and the key line Departments of Agriculture, Animal
Husbandry, Horticulture and Fisheries etc. would become constituent members
of ATMA.  Location of the Office:
The registered office of the ATMA shall be located at district collectorate
premises.
Objectives:
1. To identify location specific needs of farming community for farming system
based agricultural development.
2. To set up priorities for sustainable agricultural development with a Farming
Systems Approach;
3. To draw plans for production based system activities to be undertaken by
farmers/ultimate. users.
4. To execute plans through line departments, training institutions, NGOs,
farmers organizations and allied institutions.
5. To coordinate efforts being made by various line departments, NGOs,
farmers organizations and allied institutions to strengthen research
extension-farmers linkages in the district and to promote collaboration and
coordination between various State funded technical departments.
6. To facilitate the empowerment of farmers/products through assistance for
mobilization, organization into associations, cooperatives etc. for their
increased participation in planning, marketing, technology dissemination and
agro-processing etc.
7. To facilitate market interventions for value addition to farm produce.
Activities :
1. Identify problems, constraints and needs to the farming system periodically.
2. Draw up plans for an integrated research-extension linkage approach
3. Ensure that line departments/institutions draw up integrated development
plan based upon resources available
4. Forge or develop systematic linkages between national/state/district
institutions.
5. Ensure capacity building of manpower engaged in overall agricultural
development and strengthen infrastructural support.
6. Create suitable mechanism to ensure location specific adaptive, Indigenous
knowledge based research.
7. Ensure adequate linkages and frequent interaction between scientists, extension
functionaries and technicians and farmers.
8. Ensure capacity building of the ultimate users- the farmers in terms of physical,
financial and skill resources base.
9. Facilitate farmers’ organization to take lead role on mobilizing support services and
resources.
10. Facilitate private investments for infrastructure development.
11. Facilitate the processing and marketing activities of the agricultural, livestock, dairy,
poultry, silk and allied produce of the farmers with the help of private sector
institutions.
12. Receive and expend project funds, maintain revolving accounts, enter into contracts
and agreements, receive donations and provide services and deliver goods to
beneficiaries.
13. Accept grants of money, securities or property of any kind and undertaken and
accept the management of any endowment.
14. Generate resource in order to bring financial sustainability through charging for
selected services rendered to beneficiaries by ATMA.
15. Create administrative, technical, ministerial and other posts in the ATMA.
16. Make rules and bye-laws for the conduct of the affairs of the ATMA.
17. Do all such other lawful acts and things either alone or in conjunction with other
organizations or persons as the ATMA may consider necessary, incidental or
conductive to the attainment of the above objectives.
18. Sell, lease, exchange and otherwise transfer of any portion and the properties of the
society (ATMA).
 17. Watershed Development Programme (W D P):
Watershed development refers to the conservation regeneration and the
judicious use of all the resources – natural (like land, Water plants, animals)
and human – within the watershed area. 
Watershed Management tries to bring about the best possible balance in
the environment between natural resources on the one side and man and
animals on the other.  Since in is the man which is primarily responsible for
degradation of environment, regeneration and conservation can only be
possible by promoting awakening and participation among the people who
inhabit the watersheds.
State Watershed Programme and Review Committee:
 Zila parishadas/dras
 Watershed development advisory committees
 Project implementation agencies (pia)
 Watershed development team (wdt)
 Watershed committee (wc)
 User groups
 Self help groups
 18. Agriculture Technology Information Center (A T I C):
Estabished by ICAR and SAUs
The important criteria of Agricultural Technology Information
are
1. Availability (or accessibility) of new technologies,
2. Relevance of new technologies;
3.Responsiveness of new technologies to the needs of different
categories of farmers; and
4. Sustainability of such unit within the overall institutional system
Such information will be useful for:
• Farmers;
• Farmer-entrepreneurs;
• Extension workers and development agencies;
• NGOs; and
• Private sector organization.
Objectives:
To provide a ‘single window’ delivery system for the products and
species available form an institution to the farmers and other
interested groups as process of innovativeness in Technology
Dissemination at the institute level.
To facilitate direct the farmers access to the institutional resources
available in terms of technology, advice, technology products, etc.
for reducing technology dissemination losses;
To provide mechanism for feedback from the users to the institute
To provide diagnostic services for soil and water testing, plant and
livestock health.
To supply research products such as seeds and other planning
materials, poultry strains, livestock breeds, fish seed, processed
products, etc, emerging from the institution for testing and
adaptation by various clientele.
Providing information through published literature and
communication materials as well as audio—visual aids.
Providing an opportunity to the institutes/SAU/s to generate some
resource through the sale of their technologies.
Activities:
These centers will provide a ‘balanced scorecard’ in terms of
Financial- Resource generation and financial sustainability;
Customers –measures on performance of the technology from
the customer’s point of view;
Process- the performance of  key internal processes in terms of
providing quality services,
seed and plant materials, etc. linkage with district extension
system and, spread of improved technology and productivity in the
area.
Learning- the ability of the research organization to improve
continuously and innovate in its products, services and processes.
 19. National Horticulture Mission (N H M) July 8, 2004. 
National Horticulture Mission is a centrally sponsored scheme in
which Government of India provide 100% assistance to the state
mission during the year 2005-06 (During XI plan, the assistance
form Government of India will be 85% with 15% contribution by
the State Government.
Objectives:
To provide holistic growth of the horticulture sector through an
area based regionally differentiated strategies
To enhance horticulture production, improve nutritional security
and income support to farm households;
To establish convergence and synergy among multiple on-
going and planned programmes for horticulture development;
To promote, develop and disseminate technologies, through a
seamless blend of traditional wisdom and modern scientific
knowledge.
To create opportunities for employment generation for skilled
and unskilled persons, especially unemployed youth;
Activities:
The programmes under horticulture research will concentrate
on technology generation appropriate to each region/state keep
in in view their specific agro-climatic and socio-economic
conditions. 
Emphasis will be given for effective transfer of technologies in
production, which are already available in India and abroad.
The Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in association with
State Agriculture Universities (SAU’s) and other research
institutes /organizations in the public and private sector having
capabilities will be involved in the research programme.
 20. In Tegrated Tribal Development Project (I T D P)
The Programme on Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDP)
under Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) is being implemtnted since the Fifth
Five Year Plan in 1996.
Objectives:
Reducing poverty, improving educational status an eliminating
exploitation of the tribal families. 
To improve the situation it has been suggested that ITDP Project
Officer should be made more effective in planning and
implementation of Tribal Development Programmes.
It is also necessary to assess the deprivation of tribal in all the areas
of social concern for adoption of an appropriate principle for
determining the size of Tribal Sub-plan and allocation of funds
across various sectors. 
Activities:
The administrative arrangements to execute this programme existed in
all the states as per Central guidelines, the system of decentralised
planning, implementation and monitoring as envisaged in the
guidelines for the scheme were not operational in most of the states.
 21. Integrated Rural Development Programme (I R D P)     
IRDP launched on October 2nd. 1980 all over the Country and
accordingly all the 15 Blocks of Boudh- Kandhamal district have
been covered under the Scheme.
The I.R.D.P. continues to be a major poverty alleviation
programme in the field of Rural Development. 
Objective:
The objective of I.R.D.P. is to enable identified rural poor families
to cross the poverty line by providing productive assets and inputs
to the target groups.  The assets which could be in primary,
secondary or tertiary sector are provided through financial
assistance in the form of subsidy by the Govt. and term credit
advanced by financial institutions. 
Activity:
The programme is implemented in all the blocks in the country as
a centrally sponsored scheme funded on 50:50 basis by the
Centre and State.  The Scheme is merged with another scheme
named S.G.S.Y. since 01.04.1999.
22. Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (S G S Y): launched
in April, 1999 : This is holistic programme covering all aspects of
self employment such as organization of the poor into self help
groups, training, credit, technology, infrastructure and marketing.
Within this target group, special safeguards have been provided
by reserving 50% of benefits for SCs/STs, 40% for women and 3%
for physically handicapped persons.  Subject to the availability of
the funds, it is proposed to cover 30% of the rural poor in each
block in next 5 years.
Objectives:
To provide sustainable income to the rural poor. 
The programme aims at establishing a large number of micro-
enterprises in the rural areas, based upon the potential of the
rural poor. 
It is envisaged that every family assisted under SGSY will be
brought above the poverty-line with in a period of three years.
SGSY is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme and Funding is
shared by the Central and State Governments in the ratio of
Activities:
SGSY is a Credit-cum-Subsidy programme. 
It covers all aspects of self-employment.
Efforts would be made to involve women members in each
self-help group.
Four-five activities will be identified for each block with the
approval of panchayat Samities. 
The Gram sabha will authenticate the list of families below the
poverty line identified in BPL census. 
Closer attention will be paid on skill development of
beneficiaries,  known as swarozgaris.
23. Prime Minister’s Employment Yojana (P M EY)  
Prime Minister on 15th August, 1993 to provide self-employed
opportunities to one million educated unemployed youth in country. 
The Scheme has been formally launched on 2nd October, 1993.
Objective:
The PMEY has been designed to provide employment to more than
a million Person by setting up of 7 lakhs micro enterprises by the
educated unemployed youth.  It relates to the setting up of the self-
employment ventures through industry, service and business routes.
PMEY scheme especially in the selection, training of entrepreneurs
and preparation of project profiles.
Activity:
The trend of a higher growth of their employment is likely to continue
with the introduction of modern technologies There may, in fact be a
shift towards employment of the educated in the activities which
hitherto were the preserve of the uneducated.  Hence, the problem of
the educated needs a special focus within the overall strategy for
tackling unemployment. 
 1. Women Development Programme
1.Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (D W C R A)
2.Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
3.Mahila Samridhi Yojana (M S Y)
4.Mahila Arthik vikas Mahamankal (M A V I M)
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (D W C R A) :
This programme was launched as a sub-component of IRDP and a
centrally sponsored scheme of the Department of Rural Development with
UNICEF cooperation to strengthen the women’s component of poverty
alleviation programmes.
It is merged with S.G.S.Y. SWARNAJAYANTI GRAMA SWAROJAGAR
YOJANA since 01.04.1999.
Objectives:
1. The special scheme of Development of Women and Children in Rural
Areas (DWCRA) aims at strengthening the gender component of IRDP.
2. It was started in the year 1982-83, on a pilot basis, in 50 districts and has
now been extended to all the districts of the country.
3. DWCRA is directed at improving the living conditions of women and,
thereby, of children through the provision of opportunities for self-
employment and access to basic social service.
Activities:
1. The main strategy adopted under this programme is to facilitate
access for poor women to employment, skill up gradation,
training, credit and other support services so that the DWCRA
women as a group can take up income generating activities for
supplementing their incomes.
2. It seeks to encourage collective action in the form of group
activities that are known to work better and are more
sustainable than the individual effort.  It encourages the habit of
thrift and credit among poor rural women to make them self-
reliant.
3. The programme also envisages that this target group would be
the focus for convergence of other services like family welfare,
health care nutrition, education, childcare, safe drinking water,
sanitation and shelter to improve the welfare and quality of life
of the family and the community.
 2. Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS)
Launched on 2nd October 1975 in 33 Community Development
Blocks, ICDS today represents one of the world’s largest
programmes for early childhood development.  ICDS is the
foremost symbol of India’s commitment to her children. 
Objectives:
1. Lay the foundation for proper psychological department of the
child
2. Improve nutritional and health status of children 0-6 years
3. Reduce incidence of mortality, malnutrition and school drop-
outs
4. Enhance the capability of the mother and family to look after the
health, nutritional and development needs of the child
5. Achieve effective coordination of policy and implementation
among various departments to promote child development.
Activities:
The Scheme provides an integrated approach for converging
basic services through community-based workers and helpers. 
The services are provided at a centre called the ‘Anganwadi’. 
A package of following six services is provided under the ICDS
Scheme:
Supplementary nutrition
Non-formal pre-school education
Immunization
Health Check-up
Referral service
Nutrition and Health Education
3. Mahila Samridhi Yojana (M S Y)
The Mahila Samridhi Yojana (MSY) was launched on 2nd October,
1993 by that Department of Women & child Development with the
objective of empowering the rural women through building thrift
habit, self-reliance and confidence. 
Objectives:
it was suggested that the task of popularising the scheme be
entrusted to the grass-toot level women.  Self Help Groups,
Mahila Mandals, DWCRA, NGOs etc.
With the objective of providing economic security to the rural
women and to encourage the saving habit among them.
Activity:
Under this plan, the rural women of 18 years of above age can
open their saving account in the rural post office of their own
area with a minimum Rs. 4 or its multiplier.  On the amount not
withdrawn for 1 year, 25% of the deposited amount is given to
the depositor by the government in the form of encouragement
amount. 
Project Year Full name of the Project
IAAP 1964 Intensive Agriculture Area Programme
HYVP 1966 High Yield Variety Programme
SFDA 1970-71 Small Farmers Development Agency
T&V 1974 Training and Visit Programme
KVK 1974 Krishi Vigyan Kendra
FFDA 1974-75 Fish Farmers Development Agency
IRDP 1978-79 Integrated Rural Development Programme
TRYSEM 1979 Training for Rural Youth for Self Employment
NREP 1980 National Rural Employment Project
NAEP 1983 National Agriculture Extension Programme
BFDA 1985-90 Brackish water Fish Farmer Development Agency
JRY 1989 Jawahar Rojgar Yojna
PMRY 1995 Prime Minister Rojgar Yojna
IVLP 1996 Institute Village Linkage Programme
ATICs 2000 Agricultural Technology Information Centres
NFDB 2006 National Fisheries Development Board
 Fisheries Extension
‡Fisheries Development is closely related with the improvement in the
ability of the fisherman’s / fish farmer’s understanding and adoption of the
new technology. Farmers need to be provided with recent useful and
practical information. Thus there is a need for any agency to interpret
findings of research to fishermen/farmers and to inform problems of
fishermen/farmers to research stations for solution. This gap is bridged by
extension agencies. Fisheries extension bridges gap between fisheries
research station and fishing/farming community by establishing suitable
teaching organisations at various levels of administration.

History of Fisheries Extension

‡Royal Commission on agriculture (1928) noted that nothing was being
done to develop country’s fishing industry and recommended to
Government that departments utility should not be judged from the amount
of revenue it earned.
Grow more food campaign appointed in 1940 recommended an organized
thrust for development of fisheries. Accordingly, Fisheries Experimental
Station was set up at Barrackpore that is the present Central Inland
Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI).
Training centres on fisheries were established in Barrackpore,
Calcutta & Mandapam in 1945.
The first all India Fisheries Conference (1948) convened in New
Delhi recognized the importance of fishing industry at the hands of
the concerned officials of the Central and State Governments and
did focus its attention on the need to develop Fisheries Industry.
The idea of subsidizing some part of the capital expenditure,
specially on mechanism, originated in this conference.
All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on the National
demonstration 1964-65, launched with the aim that unless
scientists could demonstrate what they have advocated, about any
technology to the farmers otherwise the targeted results to
increase production can not be expected.
All India Coordinated Research Project on Composite Carp Culture
was started in 1971 for demonstrating composite carp culture
technology indifferent agro-climates. Production ranges between
3.5 and 6.3 tonnes/ha/year with a maximum of 10.5
tonnes/ha/year.
The AICRP on air-Breathing Fish Culture was launched in 1971 in
West Bengal, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar an Assam to
evolve appropriate technology for air-breathing fish culture in
swamps, ponds, tanks and derelict water bodies.
The Marine Product Export Development Authority (MPEDA) was
established in 1972 to augment country’s fisheries production and
promote export of seafood.
The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Rural
Aquaculture Project was launched in 1975. The thrust was on
demonstration of various aspects of aquaculture (carp production,
carp seed production) by providing all necessary inputs and
technical know-how for improving rural economy. This was
operated in 75 villages in West Bengal and Orissa covering 111
ponds.
Operational Research Project (ORP) was launched in 1974-75 to
disseminate proven technology in a cluster of villages and to
identify constraints (technical, extension and administrative)
thereof for rapid dissemination of technical know-how.
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK) (1974): KVK’s are grass root level
institutions and designed to impart need-based and skill-oriented
vocational training in agronomy, animal husbandry, horticulture,
fisheries, home science etc. to farmers, farm-woman, unemployed
youth and extension workers through work experience.
World Bank aided Inland Fisheries Project (1979) provided credit
assistance for construction of modern fish-seed hatcheries. In total,
63hatcheries had come up with World Bank assistance in U.P., W.B.,
Bihar, M.P. and Orissa.
Lab to Land Project (1979):The objective of this project was to transfer
technology from research laboratories to farmer’s field to improve
economic conditions of small and marginal farmers.
Fish Farmer’s Development Agency (FFDA) (1974-75) was initiated by
Govt. of India to popularize fish culture as an alternative means of
employment generation and removal of property. Under this scheme,
training was given to selected beneficiaries assisting in construction
and renovation of water resources, arranging credit facilities from
Nationalized banks, technical & input support and finally helping in
marketing produce.
Training and Visit System (1974): The project basically involved
re-organisation of the already existing community development
approach of extension by injecting an element of
professionalism in extension service through a single-line of
administration.
National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP) (1983): The basic
objective of the NAEP was to abridge gap between well-
developed research system and that of extension system, so
that transfer of technology could take place at a faster rate.
Brackish water Fish-farmers’ Development Agencies (BFDA)
1985-86: This was established with an objective to utilize
countries vast brackish water resources for fish/shrimp culture.
BFDA provides technical, financial and extension support to
shrimp farmers and it has made substantial contributions.
Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP) (1996): This was
initiated for assessment and refinement of technology in the
light of bio-physical and socio-economic constraints.
Agricultural Technology Information Centres
(ATICs): This Project was started with the objective
of ‘single window system’ delivery of products,
information and services to farmers and
entrepreneurs. Located near the main entrance of
the university/research institution, ATIC is
rendering services much more effectively. All
contents are made available in net having link with
all other ATICs located elsewhere, thus making it
possible to retrieve information from any ATIC
sitting in one place.
Jai Vigyan Mission (2000) for ensuring household
food and nutritional food security through
enhancing productivity of fisheries in tribal,
backward and hilly areas is presently under way in
Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Assam.
New Trends In Extension –Privatization
Extension has been, and still is, under attack from a wide spectrum
of politicians and economists over its cost and financing. As a
result, Extension Systems have had to make changes, by restating
the system’s mission, developing a new vision for the future, and
formulating plans for the necessary transition to achieve the desired
change.
At least three scenarios have been suggested by government and
farm organizations with regard to privatization of extension:
1. Public financing by the taxpayer only for the kinds of services of
direct concern to the general public.
2. Direct charging for some individual services that produce direct
return in the form of improved income, with the possibility of
differential rates for specific situations or target groups.
3. Mixed funding shared between public and private professional
association contributions for services, with delayed return or
collective services, such as applied research, training of farmers
and agents, and improvement in Extension methods and tools.
Extension service has been traditionally organized and delivered
by the public sector all over the world, which led to a situation
wherein, whenever one refers to extension, it denoted public
extension service.  Similarly, whenever private sector is referred
to, there is a tendency to consider only the corporate sector in the
category.  However, private extension has a broader canvas
including all relevant private groups than the narrow canvas of
corporate sector.
Privatization of extension services does not aim at substituting
private sector for public extension service.  In fact, privatization
has adopted a variety of forms involving different stakeholders. 
The paper portrays the major stakeholders, viz, private corporate
firms, credit institutions, farmer’s associations non-governmental
organizations and media organizations and analyses their
participant configurations.
 The success of an extension service depends on the effectiveness of
planning at four levels policy, programmes, projects and strategy.  Policy
and programmes must be decided by the public extension system, while
projects and strategy can be formulated by the private extension
organizations.  When the private extension organizations get involved in
providing extension support to farmers, it is likely there will be
competition among the various extension providers, which will result in
more efficient and demand-driven service.  Both technical and allocative
efficiency which are basically economic in nature are well take care of by
the private extension agencies, resulting in cost minimization, profit
maximisation and optimal use of resources, which are warranted in a
competitive environment.
Public extension service often views sustainability of programmes
only in terms of continuity.  Sustainability is different form continuity,
which has both ecological and equity dimensions.  The private extension
agencies, especially NGOs and media organizations provide valuable
service in ensuring sustainability of programmes in terms of the above
two dimensions.
The private extension system in India offers the following services for
farmers – terms of sharing, augmenting and supplementing the public
extension efforts besides offering unique and innovative initiatives, which
the public extension service can also emulate. 
 Some of the Services are:
1. Cost sharing by farmers’ groups
2. Cost recovery on selected services offered to farmers
3. Contracting services to small groups
4. Paid extension services for affordable farmers
5. Value addition by agro-processing firms
6. Consultancy services (both technical and managerial)
7. Privatised service centres for farmers
8. Self Help Groups of farmers
9. Information support through media organizations
Private extension system can offer a variety of services for
farmers in a competitive environment which the public sector may
not be able to.  Hence, it is suggested that public sector extension
may limit its activities only to regulatory and enabling functions,
and should mainly focus on educational activities, which are
unattractive to private sector delivery.
 Extension Teaching Methods
Extension teaching methods provide appropriate learning situation for extension workers to
help people learn new ideas and practices. All methods have their own advantages and
limitations. No single extension method is effective under all conditions, e.g.
Reading material is for those who can read,
Radio programme is for those who have radios,
Meeting for those who can attend, and
Demonstrations of recommended practices are for those who can come to demonstration
sites.
A suitable combination of these extension methods leads to higher success in diffusion of
innovations.
Extension teaching methods are classified as follows:
Individual contact methods: Farm & home visit; office call; Personnel letter; result
demonstration.
Group contact methods: Method demonstration; General meetings-lecture, symposium,
panel; group discussion; Field trip/field days
Mass contact methods: Publications - bulletins, newsletter, leaflets, pamphlets; Circular
letter; News article; Radio talk; Television programme, Campaign; Fairs
Audio visual aids in extension teaching: Audio aids - these can be heard only, e.g. Radio,
Audio cassettes/CD. Video aids -these can be seen only;
a.Non projected models (specimens, photographs, charts, posters, chalkboards)
b.Projected - Slides, film stripes. Audio-visual aids - These can be heard as well as seen, e.g.
film, television, drama, puppet show.
 Extension Teaching Learning
Learning for adoption of any new practice is
attained through the following principal steps:
Creating awareness of new idea.
Developing interest for consideration of ideas.
Creating desire for more learning.
Helping people to acquire conviction & accept
new ideas and practices.
Ensuring action by learner.
Maintaining satisfaction.
Education produces changes in human behaviour, changes in what
people know, in what they think, in what they can do and in what they
can actually do (Fig):

Teacher Subject Matter

Learners

Physical Facilities Teaching Material

Fig. Components of a learning situation

 Principles of teaching and learning
Any change of behaviour which takes place as a result of experience may be called
as learning.
Principle of learning
1. Learning is facilitated when a new behavior contribute in satisfying felt needs on
part of learner .
2. Learning should be meaningful.
3. Learning is facilitated when two or more senses are used at a time by a learner.
Senses Learning %
Taste 1.0
Touch 1.5
Smell 3.5
Hearing 11
Sight 83
4. Learners possess the ability to take
10% by reading,
20% by hearing,
70% by talking and
90% by doing.
Effect of Learning :
Learning is effective when
learners participate actively.
there is repetition by learner.
situations are real.
learners are ready to know.
Learning is facilitated when learners are provided with
knowledge of progress of learning.
Learning is facilitated when learners do self evaluation.
Learning ability is different for each Learner.
Effectiveness of methods of instruction:
Method of instruction Recall after 3 hours Recall after 3 days
Telling when used alone 70% 13%
Showing when used alone 72% 20%
When both telling & showing 85% 65%
 Teaching
Teaching is directing the learning process. It is the process of creating the
situation that facilitate the learning process. Creating situation include
providing activities, material and guidance needed by learner. The
situation created should be such that they may help in bringing the
desired changes in the skills and behaviour of learner.
Principles for consideration in selection of teaching methods:
The more senses are involved in learning process, the greater is learning,
maximum responsibility of learner then maximum will be learning.
Types of teaching methods:
1.Trainees dominated method .
a. Use of library
b. Use of laboratory
c. Use of questionnaires
d. Survey
e. Field trip
f. Project method
2.Trainer’s dominated method
a. Lecture method
b. Case study
c. Demonstration (Result demonstration and method
demonstration)
3. Co-operative method
a. Group discussion
b. Seminar
c. Symposium
d. Panel
e. Question and answer session
4. Fundamental method: It emphasize on development of
skills through instruction rather than by lecture. It develop
ability to do any work.
 Principles of Teaching
1. The teacher at first meeting should introduce what is to be
covered.
2. The learners should want to learn.
3. The teacher should keep friendly and informal environment
so that learners can ask things they do not follow.
4. The physical conditions should be friendly & appropriate.
5. The teacher should involve learners so that they participate
and accept some responsibilities for learning process.
6. The teacher should prepare well before the class and should
keep his/her teaching aid handy and should be enthusiastic
about teaching.
7. The method of instruction should be varied and appropriate
with practically informative.
 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
RRA is more commonly described as a systematic but semi-structured activity
out in the field by a multidisciplinary team and is designed to obtain new
information and to formulate new hypothesis about rural life. A central
characteristic of RRA is that its research teams are multidisciplinary .
Beyond that, the distinction between RRA and other research methodologies
dependents upon its multidisciplinary approach and the particular combination
of tools that in employs.
A core concept of RRA is that research should be carried out not by
individuals, but by a team comprised of members drawn from a variety of
appropriate disciplines. Such teams are intended to be comprised of some
members with relevant technical backgrounds and others with social science
skills, including marketing research skills.
In this way, it is thought that the varying perspectives of RRA research team
members will provide a more balanced picture.
Rapid does not mean one would get the information in a day or two but it
may take weeks together.
 The techniques of RRA include
Interview and question design techniques for individual,
household and key informant interviews
Methods of cross-checking information from different sources
Sampling techniques that can be adapted to a particular
objective
Methods of obtaining quantitative data in a short time frame
Group interview techniques, including focus-group
interviewing
Methods of direct observation at site level, and
Use of secondary data sources.
 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA):
Participatory rural appraisal evolved from rapid rural appraisal (RRA)-a set
of informal techniques used by development practitioners in rural areas to
collect and analyze data. Rapid rural appraisal developed in the 1970s and
1980s in response to the perceived problems of outsiders missing or mis-
communicating with local people in the context of development work .
In PRA, data collection and analysis are undertaken by local people, with
outsiders facilitating rather than controlling.
Chamber and Blackburn (1996) state that "PRA can be described as a
family of approaches, methods and behaviours that enable people to
express and analyse the realities of their lives and conditions, to plan
themselves what action to take, and to monitor and evaluate the results´.
Its methods have evolved from Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). The difference
is that PRA emphasises processes which empower local people, whereas
RRA is mainly seen as a means for outsiders to gather information.
PRA is generally a continuing participatory process, unlike
RRA which is more a one-off process.‡
PRA supports the direct participation of communities, with
rural people themselves becoming the main investigators and
analysts.
Rural people set the priorities; determine needs; select and
train community workers; collect, document, and analyse
data; and plan and implement solutions based on their
findings.
Actions stemming from this research tend to serve the local
community. Outsiders are there to facilitate the process but
do not direct it .
PRA uses group animation and exercises to facilitate
information sharing, analysis, and action among stakeholders.
 Communication
Derived from latin word Communis´ means Common
In Communication, thoughts, ideas etc. are exchanged.
According to Rogers, E.M. & Shoemaker, F.F. (1971) Communication is the
process by which messages are transferred from a source to receiver´.
According to Van den Ban & Hawkins (1988) Communication is the process
of sending and receiving message through channels which establishes
common meaning between a source and a receiver´.
According to Leagans, J.P. (1961) Communication is the process by which
two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in which
each gains a common understanding of the meanings and use of messages
´. In essence, is the act of getting a sender and receiver tuned together for a
message or a series of messages.
According to Dhama and Bhatnagar (1997) Communication is the process
of social interaction i.e. in a communication situation two or more
individuals interacts´.
According to Jons Merrit B. (1978) Communication is the process by which
the thoughts and feelings of one person is conveyed by verbal and non-
verbal symbols to one or more persons´.
 Communication Process
“Communication means the movement of
knowledge to people in such ways that they act on
that knowledge to achieve some useful results”.
This result may range all the way from a small
improvement in doing some productive task, to
the generation of a sense of national unity and
strength in a country.
Communication in this sense includes the whole
learning process. Good communication therefore,
is the essence of good extension teaching. One can
not teach if he can not communicate.
 Meaning & Importance
The ability to influence others is closely linked with ability to
communicate ideas. The essence of learning is understanding new
ideas in relation to recognized problems.
For two or more people to engage in a common, cooperative
effort, they must be able to communicate with each other. To
strive common goals, they must have a body of common
knowledge and ideas.
Diffusing knowledge is a relatively easy task but getting people to
understand, accept and apply is the difficult one.
Good communication does not consist merely of giving orders, or
to imparting knowledge, but of creating understanding and
helping people make use of that knowledge.
Progress in the future will stem largely from better technology and
greater skill in communicating it to others.
Economic and social change will occur only when staff workers
have effectively communicated useful ideas to large number of
people.
 Models of communication
1. According to Aristotle: Speaker Speech Audience / Receiver
2. According to Shanan C. & Weaver W.C. (1949):
S T S R D
Source Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination

3. According to Berlo D.K. (1960):

S E M D D
Source Encoder Message Decoder Destination

4. According to Schram W. (1961):

S E S D D
Source Encoder Signal Decoder Destination

5. According to Leagan J.P. (1963):

Communicator Message Treatment Channel Audience
of message
 Models of communication
6. According to Pogers E.M. & Shoemaker (1971) :
Source Encoder Message Channel Receiver Effect

7. Extension model of communication system:

Fundamental research Feed back Audience response

Applied / Adaptive

Communicator Message Treatment Channel

Audience
of message
 Basic Functions of Communication
Communication has four basic functions
1.Information Function: The basic requirement of adapting and adjusting oneself to the
environment is information. There must be some information about what is going on in
the environment which concerns the people. The getting or giving of information
underlies all communication functions, either directly or indirectly.
2. Command or instructive function: Those who are hierarchically superior, in the family,
society or organization, often initiate communication either for the purpose of
information their sub-ordinates or for the purpose of telling them, what to do, how to
do, when to do etc. The command and instructive functions or communication are
more observable in formal organizations than in informal organizations.
3. Influence or Persuasive Function: According to Berlo (1960), the sole purpose of
communication is to influence people. Persuasive function of communication i.e. to
induce people, is extremely important for extension in changing their behaviour in the
desirable direction.
4. Integrative function: A major function of communication is integration or of
continuously off setting any disintegration at the interpersonal or at the organisational
level. This helps to maintain individual, societal or organizational stability and identity.
 Communication Elements
1. Communicator
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Treatment of message
5. Audience/Receiver
6. Audience response
Elements mean those components which are involved in the process of
communication under different set of communication. Communication elements
depends upon the situation.
1. Communicator : Communicator may be one person or group of person or
corporate body or an organization which may send information to its audience
through different channels. Communicator can be effective or non-effective
depending upon knowledge, communication skill, social system, cultural system
and attitudes.
2. Message: The recommendation from the research or technology constitute the
content or subject matter. The message information which are relevant to a
particular set of audience constitute the message otherwise for them they are
noise. A good message should clearly state that what to do, when to do and what
would be result.
3. Channel : Channel constitute the medium through which information flows
from a sender to one or more person, face-to-face, word-of-mouth is the
simplest and yet one of the most widely used and effective means of
communication particularly for the developing countries.
4. Treatment of message: Treatment means the way a message is handled, dealt
with, so that the information gets across to the audience. The purpose of
treatment is to make the message clear, understandable and realistic to the
audience. It depend to a great extent on choice of the channel (meeting,
published in folder or broadcast) and the nature of audience (literacy, socio-
economic status etc.)
5. Audience / receiver : It is the target of communication function. An audience
may consist of single person or number of persons. It may comprises man
woman and youth. The communicator must know the target, their needs,
interests, resources, facilities, constraints and even their approximate number
and location. The audience has also 5 attributes as follows-
a. Knowledge.
b. Communication skill.
c. Attitude.
d. Understanding of social system.
e. Cultural system.
6. Audience response: The response of audience is ultimate objective and is the
goal of any communication function. It may be in the form of some kind of
action mental or physical. The possible kind of response to the message are
almost infinite. The response may be in the form of message-
a. Understanding Vs knowledge
b. Remembering Vs Forgetting
c. Mental Vs Physical
d. Right Vs Wrong
e. Acceptance Vs Rejection
i. Understanding versus knowledge: People usually do not act on facts alone, but
only when understanding of facts is gained. Understanding is attained only
when one is able to attach meaning of facts, see the relationship of facts to
each other and to the problem. Communication must promote understanding.
ii. Remembering versus forgetting: When opportunity for action is not immediately
available or action is delayed, the message may be forgotten. Transmitting to
the right message to the right people at right time is often a crucial factor in
successful communication
iii. Mental versus physical action: Changes in the minds of people must always
precede changes in the action by hands. People should not only understand
and accept the message but shall also act on it.
iv. Right versus wrong: The goal of communication is to promote desirable action by
the audience as specified in the objective. If the response of the audience is in line
with the objective, it is assumed to be right action. However, ‘noise’ may prevent
in getting the desired response from the audience.
v. Acceptance versus rejection: Audience response may be either way.
Communication should lead to understanding and acceptance of the idea.

Feed back
Extension communication is never complete without feedback information.
FEEDBACK means carrying some significant responses of the audience back to the
communicator . Communication work is not an end in itself. The extension agent
should know what has happened to the audience after the message has reached
them.
Feedback has the following characteristics-
i. Feedback is source oriented.
ii. Feedback varies in different communication situations.
iii. Feedback affects the source or communicator.
iv. Feedback exerts control over future messages.
v. Feedback affects communication fidelity (approving) and
vi. Feedback maintains the stability and equilibrium of a communication system.
Feedback should be a continuous process as the audience and communicators are
neither always the same persons, nor they are interacting in the same situation. The
extension agent shall take steps to analyze the responses of the audience, which may
be positive, negative or no response.
If there has been no response or negative response to a message, the extension agent
shall find out reasons for the same. If it pertains to research, the problem should be
referred as feedback information to research, to find out solution for the same.
If the problem does not relate to research, the extension agent shall find out whether
the message has been relevant to the audience, or whether the channel, treatment or
audio-visual aids has been appropriately used. If not, corrective steps should be taken
without any loss of time.
If there has been a favourable response to the message by the audience, the extension
agent shall find what next is to be done to reinforce the learning already made by the
farmers. At this stage, supply of critical inputs and services including credit are
important.
Adequate and corrective feed back are essential for purposeful communication.
Feedback information provides the communicator an opportunity to take corrective
steps in communication work, helps in identifying subsequent activities, and acts as a
path finder for need-based research.
 Facts about communication:
Communication is limited by one’s concept of the communication process.
Communication involves interaction between those who are aspiring to
communicate.
You must have ideas before you can communicate with others.
The symbol and indication used to represent ideas must be accurate and
skillfully used.
Cultural values and social organization are determinants of communication.
The environment created by the communicator influences his effectiveness.
To make sense, communication effort must be organized according to some
specific form or pattern.
Cooperation is essential to communication.
Standards of communication influence its success.‡
Evaluation is necessary to improve communication.
Key elements of communication‡
In extension education programmes, it is assumed that people
will continue their ways of thinking and doing until they have
new learning experience that cause them to adopt new ways.
It is also assumed that to accept new modes of thinking and
acting specified by a programme, people need a greater
incentive to change than to continue their present course.
In this context, the task of communicator is to powerful
incentives for change.
Success at this task requires thorough understanding of the six
key elements of communication: a skillful communicator
sending a useful message through proper channels effectively
treated to an appropriate audience that responds as desired.
Source Encoder Message Channel Receiver Effect
 The Communicator
A key factor influencing the effectiveness of communication is the
person who originates and sends the message.
The credibility of the communicator as perceived by the audience is a
powerful determinant in communication.
Who is he?
What are his motives?
What does he know?
What are his attitudes and skills?
How does he look?
How does he act, write, and speak?
Is his purpose to impart information that really helps?
Questions like these often enter the minds of people brought in contact
with a communicator. When a communicator does not hold the
confidence of his audience communication will not take place.
Fortunately, there are some things a communicator can do to improve
his credibility to an audience.
 A good communicator is characterized by the following:
He knows-‡
His objectives - has them specifically defined.
His audience - needs, interests, abilities, predispositions.
His message - Content, validity, usefulness, importance.
Channels that will reach the audience.
How to organize and treat his message.
His professional abilities and limitations.
He is interested in -
His audience and its welfare.
His message and how it can help people.
Results of communication and their evaluation.‡
Communication process.
Communication channels - their proper use and limitations.
How to improve his communication skill.
He prepares -‡
A plan for communication ± Teaching plan.
Communication materials and equipment.
A plan for evaluation of results
He has skills in -‡
Selecting message.
Treating messages.
Expressing messages - verbal and written.
Selection and use of channels.
Understanding his audience.
Collecting evidence of results.
The foregoing are well tested ways a communicator
engaged in extension education can help assure an
acceptable degree of success. Good communicators
have, or soon develop, ability to handle these critical
points. In contrast, communicators allow certain
behaviour to block their success.
 Adoption and diffusion of innovations
Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best
course of action available.
Diffusion if the process by which an innovation is communicated
through certain channels over time among the members of a social
system. It is a special type of communication, in that messages are
concerned with new ideas. It is this newness of the idea in the
message content of communication that gives diffusion its special
character.
An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by
an individual or other unit of adoption. Perception is an activity
through which an individual becomes aware of objects around oneself
and of events taking place. The technologies, practices developed
through research are innovations. These may be new varieties of
crops and plants, new breeds of livestock, new chemicals and
medicines, new technique of doing things etc. Farmers themselves
may develop some new practices which are also innovations.
 The Adoption Process
Ryan and Gross (1943), were probably the first to recognize that the
adoption of a new idea consisted of stages. They distinguished
between ‘awareness’ of hybrid seed corn, ‘conviction’ of its
usefulness, trial ‘acceptance’ and ‘ complete adoption’ of the
innovation.
Wilkening (1953), described the adoption of an innovation as a process
composed of learning, deciding and acting over a period of time. He
identified four adoption stages -awareness, obtaining information,
conviction & trial, and adoption.
Adoption is essentially a decision making process. According to Johnson
and Haver (1955), decision making involves the following steps:
1. Observing the problem,
2. Making analysis of it,
3. Deciding the available courses of action,
4. Taking one course, and
5. Accepting the consequences of the decision.
The North Central Rural Sociology Subcommittee for the study of Diffusion
of Farm Practices (1955), identified five stages of the adoption process,
which received world-wide attention. These are-
i. Awareness ii. Interest iii. Evaluation iv. trial and v. adoption
According to them adoption is not an instantaneous act. It is a process
that occurs over a period of time and consists of a series of actions.
1. Awareness stage: The individual learns of the existence of the new
idea but lacks information about it.
2. Interest stage: The individual develops interest in the innovation and
seeks additional information about it.
3. Evaluation stage: The individual makes mental application of the new
idea to the present and anticipated future situations and decides
whether of not to try it.
4. Trail stage: The individual actually applies the new idea on a small
scale in order to determine its utility in own situation.
5. Adoption stage: The individual uses the new idea continuously on a
full scale. Trial may be considered as the practical evaluation of an
innovation.
 period, accelerates to a maximum
Adopters categories: when about half of the individuals in
All individual in a social system don't the system have adopters and then
adopt an innovation at the same time. increase at a gradually slower rate as
Rather, they adopt in a ordered time the few remaining individuals finally
sequence, and they may be classified adopt. Each adoption in the social
into adopter categories on the basis of system is in a sense equivalent to a
when they first begin using a new idea. learning trial by an individual.
In technology transfer programme, it is
of great practical utility for the
extension agents to identify the
individuals who are likely to adopt
innovations early and who may lag
behind.
The adoption of an innovation over time
follows a normal, bell-shaped curve
when plotted over time on a frequency
basis. If the cumulative number of
adopters is plotted, it results in an S-
shaped curve.
The S-shaped curve rises slowly at first
when there are few adopters in a time
The distribution of adopters over time closely approaches normality,
and may be explained by the statistical concept of normal curve .
The distribution of the adopters may be partitioned into five
adopters categories by using the mean and standard deviation. The
area lying to the left of the mean time of adoption minus two
standard deviations includes 2.5 percent of the individuals who are
first to adopt and innovation and are known as innovators.
Important characteristics of the adopters categories are:
1. Innovators: They are venturesome and first to adopt a new idea, much
ahead of others members in the community. They are generally very few in
number. They may deviate from the social norm and may be viewed as
deviants by others. They are mentally alert, have good contact with
cosmopolite sources of information and actively seek new ideas. The
innovators are oriented to develop good contact with the research station
and high level extension functionaries.
2. Early adopters: They are localities and are a more integrated part of the
community. Because early adopters are too far ahead, the average members
of the community can comprehend their activities relating to adoption of
the innovation. They have opinion leadership and potential adopters look to
them for advice and information about the innovation. They don't test
untried ideas, but quickest to use tried ideas in their own situations.
3. Early majority : They adopt new ideas just before the average member of the
community. They are neither very early not relatively late to adopt an
innovation. They are deliberate and take longer time to make decision to
adopt, in comparison to the innovators and early adopters. They have less
contact with the cosmopolite sources of information.
4. Late majority : They are cautious and skeptical and adopt new ideas just
after the average members of the community. They adopt mainly
because people have already adopted the innovation and getting the
benefit out of it. They have low level of education, low level of
participation and depend mostly on localities sources of information.
5. Laggards: The are the traditional and the last to adopt an innovation. By
the time the laggards finally adopt an innovation, it may already have
been superseded by a more recent idea which the innovators are
already using. They are most localities and primarily interact with those
who have traditional values. They tend to be frankly suspicious of
innovations, innovators and extension agents. A fast moving world is
shocking to them and they find it difficult to adjust with it. They are
generally resource-poor people with little surplus to invest in their
production enterprise.
Adoption behaviour is many a times interpreted in terms of ability of the farmers
to adopt a new technology. This interpretation may not be wholly correct as it
does not take into account the lapses of research and extension. Technologies,
for the development and dissemination of which there have been very little
dialogue with the farmers, are less likely to be adopted, particularly by the
resource-poor farmers.
 Training and Education
Training means to educate a person so as to be fitted, qualified
and proficient in doing some job. For an extension worker
training include education which aim at bringing a desirable
change in behaviour of trainee.
This change requires a change in his knowledge, skill, attitude,
value, believe and understanding so that he fits in his job
and become qualified and proficient in communicating the
desirable knowledge to his client system such as for farmers,
fish farmers or animal breeders etc.
Training has a characteristics of:
1. Concern with skill.
2. Concern with whole learning.
3. Concern with practice.
4. Concern with experimentation.
Soft skills are personal attributes (a quality or characteristic that someone
has) that enhance an individual's interactions, job performance and
career prospects. Unlike hard skills, which tend to be specific to a
certain type of task or activity, soft skills are broadly applicable. Soft
skills are sometimes broken down into Personal attributes, such as:‡
 Optimism
 ‡Responsibility
 ‡A sense of humor ‡Integrity
 ‡Time-management‡
 Motivation
and Interpersonal (relationships between people) abilities such as:
‡Empathy (the ability to share someone else's feelings or experiences)‡
 Leadership‡
 Communication‡
 Good manners‡
 Sociability‡
 The ability to teach
 Types of training for extension worker
The training of the extension worker can be classified as follows:
1. Pre-service training: This is a training which extension worker receives
before joining the actual job. This includes his education at high school
level or higher secondary school or general college or professional
colleges from where the extension worker receive degree and specific
training as in the case of village level workers at VLW training centres
etc.
2. In-service training: This is for improving the ability of extension worker or
keeping him updated for latest knowledge or giving him some special
training in new job, he is required to do.
This type of training may be of different type such as:
a. Orienting the new job workers offer to join the job or orienting an old
worker with new job which is required to do.
b. Introduction training.
c. Job training.
d. Short-range courses.
e. Periodical meetings, conferences, seminar, workshop etc.
 Principles of extension training
Some of the basic principles of training are-
1. Motivation is basic for good training. A good trainer must start his work by
creating a feeling of need in the trainees. Since the actual willingness and
desire to learn come from within the person.
2. Good training requires specific and clearly defined objectives. The
different aspects of the training objectives namely - The person to be
trained, the behaviour changes to be developed in them must be spelled
out in the training objective.
3. Good training must accomplish certain types of educational changes in
relation to subject matter learn. These changes may be the change in
knowledge, changes in skills or ability to do something including manual
of physical skills, changes in attitude, changes in interest and changes in
understanding.
4. Good training requires effective learning situations which include five
major elements such as teacher, learner, subject matter, teaching aids and
facilities.
5. Good training should provide effective learning experiences to the
trainees.
6. Good training requires a combination of training techniques. Training
should involve appropriate activities engaging maximum number of
senses and a combination such as oral, visual, audio-visual or by doing
the task.
7. Training should be challenging and satisfying. To be challenging
subject matter must be presented in the form of problems for which
trainees should be encouraged to find a solution.
8. Good training requires careful evaluation of results.
Need for training-
Training improves a persons skill, his power of intelligence and develops
in him the desired attitude and values required for his work. Training
helps a new entrant to acquire occupational work skills and the latest
knowledge, make him familiar with the objectives of organization to
which he belongs and helps to make his potential contribution in
promoting goals of his organization. Training also make up for any
deficiency in the new recruits and maintains the moral of staff. Training
has special significance in the field of agriculture development and
community development.
Since the objective of the programs is to train rural people to solve
most of their problems individually or in groups. The success of
extension worker can be judged by extent to which he has been
able to make village people self dependent in getting them to do
things by themselves without relying on outside help.
Training and visit programme (T & V programme)
T & V system was introduced in year 1974 in Rajasthan Canal area in
Rajasthan and Chambal command area in M.P. The main emphasis
of T & V programme is on systematic time bound programme of
training based on intensive field visit by the extension worker under
close supervision. The working objective of system are as follows-
1. Coordinating research, training and extension activities effectively.
2. To make the research more effective according to local need and
situation.
3. To evolve an intensive training programme on systematic bases for
extension workers and farmers & ensure effective supervision and
technical support.
‡The above objectives can be achieved by re-organization of extension in a
manner so that VEW (village extension worker) is able to meet the farmers
with needed frequency and required data.
The visit is to be used for identifying the problems and to solve them.
In order to allow VEW to work intensively his area of operation is reduced
considerably.
The extension workers are expected to devote their time exclusively to
the professional agricultural extension and
Extension personnel don’t have any direct responsibility for arranging
the supply of inputs.
Basic assumption of T & V programme:
T & V system is based on assumption that it is rather impossible to maintain
regular contact with most of the farmers directly which is neither
necessarily not desirable hence selected messages have to be focused
mainly on selected compact farmers who will assist in spreading the new
practices to most of the farmers in their area very quickly . It is assumed
that contact farmers must be willing to try out the new practices
recommended by extension worker and must be prepared to have other
farmers visit their fields.
 Training Centers in Fisheries Sector
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

Deptt. of Agricultural Deptt. of Animal Husbandry &

Research & Education (DARE) Dairying (DAHD)
DG DDG

ICAR
Fisheries Division

Fisheries Colleges 19 Research Institutes

IFP‡
CMFRI CIFNET (Fisheries Nautical
‡CICFRI &Engineering Training)‡
‡CIFT CICEF(Coastal-Engineering for
‡CIFE Fishery, Bangalore)‡
‡NBFGR FSI‡
‡CIFA FISHERIES DEPTT.
‡CIBA ‡SPONSORED SCHEMES
‡DCFR
 FISHERIES UNDER ICAR
Fisheries Research and Education under ICAR is supported by:
1 National Institute (Deemed University)
5 Resources Specific Research Institutes
1 National Research Centre
1 National Bureau
20 Fishery Colleges
Fisheries Research under five major programmes covering eight Plan Schemes:
PROGRAMMES SCHEMES
1. Capture Fisheries ‡CMFRI, CICFRI
2. Culture Fisheries ‡CIFA‡, CIBA‡, DCFR
3. Harvest & Post Harvest Technology ‡CIFT
4. Fish Genetic Resources ‡NBFGR
5. Fisheries Education‡ CIFE
 National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB)
The National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) was
established in 2006 at Hyderabad as an autonomous
organization under the administrative control of the
Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries,
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of
India to enhance fish production and productivity in the
country and to coordinate fishery development in an
integrated and holistic manner.
Mission
Holistic development of the fisheries sector through
enhancement of fish production and productivity; to
supplement nutritious protein for the growing population; to
accelerate the overall economy of the country, besides
improving health, economy, exports, employment and tourism
in the country.
Mandates:
 To provide focused attention to fisheries and aquaculture
(Production. Processing, Storage, Transport and marketing).
 To achieve sustainable management and conservation of
natural aquatic resources.
 To apply modern tools of research and development for
optimizing production and productivity from fisheries.
 To provide modern infrastructure mechanisms for effective
fisheries management and optimum utilization.
 To train and empower women in the fisheries sector and
also generate substantial employment.
 To enhance the contribution of the fish toward food and
nutritional security.
Objectives
 To bring activities relating to fisheries and aquaculture for focused
attention and professional management.
 To coordinate activities pertaining to fisheries undertaken by
different Ministries/Departments in the Central Government and
also coordinate with the State/Union Territory Governments.
 To improve production, processing, storage, transport and
marketing of the products of capture and culture fisheries.
 To achieve sustainable management and conservation of natural
aquatic resources including the fish stocks.
 To Apply modern tools of research and development including
biotechnology for optimizing production and productivity from
fisheries.
 To provide modern infrastructure mechanisms for fisheries and
ensure their effective management and optimum utilization.
 To generate substantial employment.
 To train and empower women in the fisheries sector.
 To enhance contribute of fish towards food and nutritional security.
Activities
The following activities are performed by the NFDB.
Intensive Aquaculture in Ponds and Tanks
Fisheries Development in Reservoirs
Coastal Aquaculture
Mariculture
Seaweed Cultivation
Infrastructure: Fishing Harbours and Landing Centres
Fish Dressing Centres and Solar Drying of Fish
Domestic Marketing
Technology Upgradation
Deep Sea Fishing and Tuna Processing
Other Activities
1. Intensive Aquaculture in Ponds and Tanks
Target of pond fish productivity of 5 tonnes/ha/year in 8 lakh
hectares, with 50,000 hectares new area
 Intensive aquaculture in new ponds and tanks
 First-year one time inputs for intensive aquaculture in ponds
and tanks
 Establishment of hatcheries for production of fish seed
 Establishment of fish seed rearing units for production of fish
fingerlings
 Training and demonstration
2. Reservoir Fisheries
 Target of reservoir fish productivity of 150 kg/ha/year in 15 lakh
hectares
 Assistance for stocking the reservoirs with fish fingerlings
 Training
3. Coastal Aquaculture
Target of reservoir fish productivity of 150 kg/ha/year in 15 lakh
hectares :Training & Demonstration
 Fish Farmers Development Agencies (FFDA)
The main objectives of the scheme are:
i. Optimization of fish production and productivity;
ii. Generation of employment;
iii. Improving socio-economic conditions of fishermen; and
iv. Increasing per capita availability and consumption of fish.
429 FFDA have already been established to provide a package of
technical, financial and extension support to fish farmers. National
average productivity from FFDA ponds is 2200kg/ha/annum and the
agencies are to be continued to cover more are as under scientific
culture & to train fish farmers. The pattern of assistance on
developmental activities will be shared on 75:25 basis by the Centre
and the State in respect of all programmes. In respect of two new
programmes viz. Aquatic Quarantine and Inspection Unit and
Network of Diagnostic Laboratories for Aquatic Animal Health, 100%
expenditure will be borne by the Centre.
Development of Freshwater Aquaculture (FFDAs) -Ongoing Component
Description of Item Rate
1. Construction of new ponds Rs. 2.00 lakh /ha in the plain areas. Subsidy @
20% with a ceiling of Rs. 40,000/ha for all
farmers except SCs/STs for whom it will be Rs.
50,000/ha (25 %) Rs. 3.0 lakh /ha in the hill
States/ Districts and North-Eastern region.
Subsidy @ 20 % with a ceiling of Rs. 60,000/ha
for all farmers except SCs/STs for whom it will
be Rs. 75,000/ha (25 %).
2. Reclamation/Renovation Rs. 60,000/ha. Subsidy @ 20 % with a ceiling of
of ponds/tanks Rs. 12,000/ha for all farmers except SCs/STs for
whom it will be Rs. 15,000/ha (25 %).
3. Cost of inputs a) Finfish Culture- Rs. 30,000/ha Subsidy @ 20
% with a ceiling of Rs. 6,000/ha for all
farmers except SCs/STs for whom it will be
Rs. 7,500/ha (25 %)
b) Freshwater prawn culture-Unit cost Rs. 1.20
lakh per ha. Subsidy @ 20 % with a ceiling of
Rs. 24,000/-ha
Development of Freshwater Aquaculture (FFDAs) -Ongoing Component
Description of Item Rate
4. Running Water fish Rs. 20,000/unitof100sq. meters. The above cost
culture in hilly areas as well is inclusive of Rs.4,000 towards inputs. Subsidy
as in plain areas @ 20 % with a ceiling of Rs. 4,000/-unit for all
farmers except SCs/Sts for whom it will be Rs.
5,000/unit (25%). Ceiling of 3 units for each
farmer in terms of admissibility of grant.

5.IntegratedFishFarming
6.Aerators/Pumps
Rs.80,000/
ha.Subsidy@20%withaceilingofRs.16,000/ha for
all farmers except SCs/STs for whom it will
beRs.20,000/ha(25%).
Rs.50,000/unitoftwo1hpaerators/
one5hpdieselpump. subsidy @25 % with a
ceiling of Rs.12,500/-for each set of
aerators/pump for all categories of farmers
who have reached a level of
productionof3000kg/ha/year. Maximum of two
1 hp aerators/one 5hp diesel pump for one
hectare water area will be admissible.
Development of Freshwater Aquaculture (FFDAs) -Ongoing Component
Description of Item Rate
7. Freshwater Fish Seed Rs. 8 lakh for a fish seed hatchery with
Hatchery 10million (fry) capacity for the plain areas
and Rs.12 lakh for same capacity in
States/ Districts and NE Region. Subsidy
@ 10 % with a ceiling of Rs.80,000/-and
Rs.1.20 lakhs in the plain and hilly areas
respectively to entrepreneurs only.

8. Fish Feed Units Small Units-Unit cost is Rs. 5 lakh with a

capacity of 1.2 quintals/ day. The subsidy
would be @ 20 % with a ceiling of
Rs.1lakh per unit to entrepreneurs.
9.Training of fish farmers Stipend @ Rs.100/-per day during
training period of 10 days and a lump
sum of Rs.100/-towards travel
expenses/ field visits.
Development of Freshwater Aquaculture (FFDAs) -Ongoing Component
Description of Item Rate
10. Establishment of freshwater (i)Unit cost is Rs.30 lakhs for a large
prawn seed hatchery freshwater prawn hatchery with a minimum
capacity of 25 million PL/year. This would be
one time grant to the States for establishment
of hatchery at State level.(ii)Unit cost is Rs.8
lakhs for a small hatchery of 5-10 million
PL/Year capacity. Subsidy @20% with a
ceiling of Rs.1.60 lakhs to entrepreneurs as
one time grant.

11. Establishment of Unit cost is Rs.30 lakhs (Rs.25 lakh for the
laboratories at State level for construction of building and Rs.5 lakh for
water quality and fish health equipment, glassware & chemicals, etc.).
investigations This would be one time grant to the States.
Operational and other recurring cost would
be met by the respective States.
12. Provision of soil and water Unit cost of each soil and water testing kit
testing kits to each FFDA isRs.30,000. The kits are sanctioned once
to each FFDA as one time grant.
Development of Freshwater Aquaculture (FFDAs) -Ongoing Component
Description of Item Rate
13. Setting up of integrated units, Unit cost is Rs.15 lakhs which includes hatchery
including hatcheries for of 5-10 million (fry) capacity. Subsidy @ 10% with
ornamental fishes a maximum ceiling of Rs.1.50 lakh to all
categories of fish farmers.
14. Transportation of fish/prawn This will be applicable only for the hill
seed States/Districts and North-Eastern Region.
Subsidy @ Rs.20 for 1000 fry transported to all
FFDAs. Not applicable to individual fish farmer.

15.Purchase of Vehicles 50% cost of vehicle for each new FFDA and50%
cost for the replaced vehicle (second vehicle).

Expenditure on all items above except purchase of vehicles (item 15) will be
shared on 75:25 basis between Government of India and States.
The above assistance under FFDA programme is available only once to a
beneficiary.
Subsidy for the construction of new ponds and tanks, reclamation/ renovation of
ponds/tanks and first year inputs to an individual beneficiary up to 5 ha is
available with or with out institutional finance in the plain areas and 1.0 ha in the
hill States/ Districts on pro-rata basis.
Objectives :
 Enhancement of inland fish production and fish productivity.
 Popularisation of modern fish farming.
 Creation of employment opportunities through fisheries.
 Diversifying aquaculture practices.
 Providing assistance to fish farmers engaged in aquaculture.
 Provide training to fish farmers of Fish Farmers' Development
Agencies
Salient features:
 Subsidy is given to the fish farmers for construction &
renovation of new as well as existing ponds & tanks.
 First year inputs like fish seeds, feeds, fertilizers and other
inputs are provided.
 Establishment of Fish seed hatcheries and fish feed mills.
 Create a cadre of trained and well organized fish farmers fully
engaged in aquaculture
Funding Pattern
Financial assistance on developmental activities are shared on
75:25 basis by the Government of India and the State Government
in respect of all programme except Aquatic Quarantine &
Inspection Unit and Network of Diagnostic Laboratories for Aquatic
Animal Health, for which, 100% expenditure is born by the Centre.
Target Group/Beneficiaries
Fish farmers/ fishers including both fishermen and fisherwomen
and fisheries cooperative societies (P.F.C.S).
Implementing Agency
State Government/UT Administration through Fish Farmers’
Development Agencies (FFDAs). and Brackish water Fish Farmer
Development Agency(BFDA), FISHCOPFED, ICAR Institutes etc.
Structure of the scheme
The structure and components of the scheme are:
Development of Fresh water Aquaculture
Development of Brackish water Aquaculture
Development of Cold water fisheries & Aquaculture
Development of Waterlogged Areas
Productive Utilization of Inland Saline/Alkaline soils for Aquaculture
Integrated development of Inland Capture Resources (reservoirs & rivers)
Innovative Projects.
Eligibility
Assistance under the scheme is provided to all individual fish farmers
engaged in aquaculture activities.
Area of operation
Inland, brackish water and hilly areas of all the States and Union Territories.
Procedure for applying
Beneficiaries are required to submit viable proposals through the Fishery
Extension Officers of the concerned Block to the District Fish Farmers Dev.
Agency (F.F.D.A) for availing the subsidy & to the Banks for availing the
financial assistance for both long term & short term lending.
BRACKISHWATER FISH FARMERS DEVELOPMENT AGENCY 
     Considering the potential available for coastal aquaculture
development the Government of India during the 7th five year plan
period introduced establishment of Brackish water Fish Farmers
Development Agencies (BFDA) for providing a package of technical,
financial and extension support to the shrimp aqua culturists;
strengthening the technical wing in the State Fisheries Directorate;
establishing demonstration-cum- training centre and establishment of
brackish water shrimp farms and hatcheries in the Government
sector under the centrally sponsored scheme. The Government of
Tamilnadu established five BFDAs (Cuddalore, Pattukottai,
Thoothukudi, Vanianchavadi and Ramanathapuram Districts)
between 1991 and 1993 to look after the shrimp culture development
of the 12 coastal districts. Apart from that one shrimp hatchery was
established at Neelankarai. For the purpose of demonstration-cum-
training, the Government of Tamil nadu established model prawn
farms in ten locations. (Pulicat, Vanianchavadi, Parangipettai,
Thondiakkadu, Eripurakkarai, Kattumavadi, Keezhavaipar,
Kannamunai and Punnakayal).
Marine Products Export Development Authority
The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA)
was set up by an act of Parliament during 1972. The erstwhile
Marine Products Export Promotion Council established by the
Government of India in September 1961 was converged in to
MPEDA on 24th August 1972 headquartered at Kochi.
MPEDA is the nodal agency for the holistic development of
seafood industry in India to realise its full export potential as a
nodal agency. Based on the recommendations of MPEDA,
Government of India notified new standards for fishing vessels,
storage premises, processing plants and conveyances. MPEDA’s
focus is mainly on Market Promotion, Capture Fisheries, Culture
Fisheries, Processing Infrastructure & Value addition, Quality
Control, Research and Development.
MPEDA functions under the Ministry of Commerce and
Industry, Government of India and acts as a coordinating agency
with different Central and State Government establishments
engaged in fishery production and allied activities.
Functions of MPEDA
Registration of infrastructural facilities for seafood export trade.
Collection and dissemination of trade information.
Promotion of Indian marine products in overseas markets.
Implementation of schemes vital to the industry by extending
assistance for infrastructure development for better preservation
and modernised processing following quality regime.
Promotion of aquaculture for augmenting export production
through hatchery development, new farm development,
diversification of species and up gradation of technology
Promotion of deep-sea fishing projects through test fishing, joint
ventures and up gradation & installation of equipments to
increase the efficiency of fishing.
Market promotional activities and publicity.
To carry out inspection of marine products, its raw material,
fixing standards and specifications, training, regulating as well as
to take all necessary steps for maintaining the quality of seafood
that are marketed overseas.
 Impart trainings to fishermen, fish processing workers,
aquaculture farmers and other stake holders in the respective
fields related to fisheries.
Conduct research and development for the aquaculture of
aquatic species having export potential through Rajiv Gandhi
Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA).
Conduct extension and awareness activities, trainings etc
through Network for Fish Quality Management and Sustainable
Fishing (NETFISH) & National Centre for Sustainable
Aquaculture (NaCSA).
To prescribe for itself any matters required for protecting and
augmenting the seafood exports from the country in the future.
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
The FAO Headquarters is located in the city centre of Rome, near
the Circo Massimo and close to the Colosseum.
Vision: A world in which responsible and sustainable use of
fisheries and aquaculture resources makes an appreciable
contribution to human well-being, food security and poverty
alleviation.
Mission: To strengthen global governance and the managerial and
technical capacities of members and to lead consensus-building
towards improved conservation and utilization of aquatic resources.
Activities
Activities reflect the main FAO mandate of managing knowledge
and information, assuring a global neutral forum for Members and
providing technical assistance. They also relate to the Department's
overall goals and mission, specifically the management and
conservation of aquatic resources; utilization, marketing and trade
of fishery products; and development of fisheries policies.
 Programme Planning
According to Kelsey and Hearne (1967), an Extension Programme is a
statement of situation, objectives, problems and solutions. It is relatively
permanent but requires constant revision. It forms the basis for extension
plans.‡
Planning is a process which involves
 studying the past and present in order to forecast the future and in the
light of that forecast determining the goals to be achieved and what must
be done to reach them.
 Programme planning is a decision making process involving critical
analysis of the existing situation and the problems, evaluation of the
various alternatives to solve these problems and the selection of the relevant
ones, giving necessary priorities based upon local needs and resources by
the cooperative efforts of the people both official and non-official with a view to
facilitate the individual and community growth and development.
 Ex- In village ponds, Integrated fish farming goals can be finalized after
checking up cultural compatibility with the farmers; technical compatibility with
the scientists and financial compatibility with the Banks & Govt. Departments.
 Objectives and needs of having programme
The general objective of having an extension programme is to influence people to
make changes in their way of life and in making a living. The assumption is that
there is need for change and if people are not aware, it is necessary to make them
aware of this; and to develop their needs. Kelsey and Hearne (1967) gave the
reasons for having a programme that may be specifically stated as follows.
1. To ensure careful consideration of what is to be done and why.
2. To furnish a guide against which to judge all new proposals.
3. To establish objectives toward which progress can be measured and evaluated.
4. To have a means of choosing the important (deep rooted) from incidental
(minor, less important) problems and the permanent from the temporary
changes.
5. To develop a common understanding about the means and ends between
various functionaries and organizations.
6. To ensure continuity during changes in personnel.
7. To help develop leadership.
8. To avoid waste of time and money and promote efficiency.
9. To justify expenditure and to ensure flow of funds.
10. To have available in written form a statement for public use.
 Principles of Extension Programme Planning
Extension programmes have the definite purpose of improving rural life
through individual, group and community action. Extension programme
planning has certain principles which hold good irrespective of the nature of
the clientele and the enterprises they may be pursuing.
1. Should be based on an analysis of the past experiences, present situation
and future needs.
2. Should have clear and significant objectives which could satisfy important
needs of the people.
3. Should fix up priority on the basis of available resources and time.
4. Should clearly indicate the availability and utilization of resources.
5. Should have a general agreement at various levels.
6. Should involve people at the local level.
7. Should involve relevant institutions and organizations.
8. Should have definite plan of work.
9. Should provide for evaluation of results and consideration of programme.
10. Should provide for equitable distribution of benefits amongst the
members of the community.
Steps in Extension Programme Planning
4
4 Determination of Objectives & Goals

Identification of Developing plan of

Problem 43 54 work & Calendar of
operation

Analysis of Programme Follow through

Programme
Situation 42 Implementation 64 Plan of work &
Determination calendar of
operation

Evaluation of
Collection of 41 74 Progress
Facts

48 Reconsideration & revision of

the programme
 Rural Sociology‡
Sociology is the science of human relationships.
Rural sociology involves the study of human
relationships in rural situations.
Society is a group of people who have lived together
long enough, sharing common values and general
interests, to be considered as a social unit.
Rural societies are found in the rural areas like
villages and urban societies in the urban areas like
towns, cities, industrial and commercial centres.
 Rural and Urban Society:
Rural societies differ from urban societies in a number of ways. The predominant
characteristics of the rural and urban societies are as follows:
S. No. Rural Society Urban Society
1. Occupation Agriculture Neighbors Non-agriculture Neighbors
generally engaged in generally engaged in diverse
diverse occupation occupation
2. Work Open air, close to nature. Enclosed, away from nature.
Environment Mostly related with soil, Most related with trade,
water plant & animal life commerce industry, office
work & the like

3. Weather & Very important Not so important

Season
4. Skills Require wide range of skills Require specialized skills
5. Work unit Family as work unit more Individuals generally form
common work units
6. Type of family Joint and Extended family Small, nuclear family
7. Size of Small Medium to large
community
S. No. Rural Society Urban Society

8. Density of population Low High

9. Homogeneity/ Relatively Relatively
heterogeneity homogeneous heterogeneous

10. Social interaction Few and personal Numerous & mostly

impersonal

11. Institution Small and simple Large and complex

12. Mobility-social, Low High

occupational and physical
13. Infrastructure Little to moderately Well developed
developed

14. Modern home amenities Few Many

15. Mass media participation Low High

16. Value system Generally sacred Generally secular

 Rural welfare and its agency
The word welfare has two different uses one general and other specific. In the
general sense it refers to condition of society in terms of its well being such as
state of prosperity help, security on happiness in the specific sense it refers to
those act procedure and organization in the society which are intended to
assist individual or group out of trouble. It involve correction of social illness
states of poverty, unemployment, family disorganization, crime etc. The
objective of social welfare institution to provide effective means by which risk of
life can be shared by community and individuals.
Type of welfare institutions:
Welfare agency may be classified as public or private and generalized or
specialized.
The private institution is the result of voluntary association of people having
desire and means to contribute the solution of social problem such as institution
is characterized by the state and incorporated as a non profit organization it
has a membership composed of individual who synthesize with its objective
and to whom its officers are responsible. The officers are board of directors
who employ a staff of professional workers. Funds for its purpose are derived
mainly from free will contribution of person or group in the community.
The public agency is an aspect of government and is similar in its
design to the public school or public library. Typically at the local
level of government there is a welfare board in addition there is
state board of public welfare which decide policies governing the
expenditure of state fund and act as general coordinator of
country welfare board activities. The general welfare agency is
designed to cover more than 1 for of social need i.e. it may not
only treat the cases in need of old age assistance but also those
of child or mother dependency, the blind or those temporary in the
need of help. The specialized institutions are those which are
devoted to the treatment of special cases.
Level of family living:
The phrase level of living is more meaningful to use in reference to
actual condition the status of family from standard point of view is
related to degree of satisfaction, social adjustment and
psychological well being of family members.
Factors influencing the level of living
1.Income: The level of living as measured in terms of such item as housing, food,
clothing and so on is definitely related to the income of family. The difference
in proportion of income spent for various items between two groups are
significant. First to be noted is higher proportion of expenditure of the lower
income group which went for food, housing clothing. The higher income
groups spent more for furnishing transportation, medical care, gift and
welfare. It is quite evident therefore that the variation in the amount of
income is associated with modification in the pattern of family living.
2. Formal education: the level of living is not entirely a function of economic
factor. The amount of formal education has been found to be definitely
associated with income and with the level of living. Those with more
education are spending more money and a large proportion of it for less
immediate need and the families are living in more valuable and better
furnished houses. Formal education appear to create wants for items which
are associated with higher living level.
3. Pattern of settlement : Another factor which has considerable influence in
deterring level of living in the scattered pattern of farm settlement. Their wide
dispersion over the country wide makes difficult the attainment by the farm
family of the comforts of the electricity, gas, running water & sewage disposal.
4. Life cycle of the family : The life of a particular family is
determined by stages of its life cycle. Unlike most of the
other social institution or associations the family has
inevitable life cycle. Inevitable because it is associated with
biological factor of ageing in the human being. The family is
subjected to biological process which control the living
organisms. Man & woman marry in their youth stages, ,
grow old and die. The children grow themselves marry,
have children, grow old. Thus the process repeated over
and over. Individual associations come and go only the
form persist. The four stages of family can be given as:
1.Married couples starting independent existence.
2.Couple with one or more children.
3.Couple with one or more adult self supporting child.
4.Couple becoming old, some children marry, separate.
 Psychology in Extension Education
• Father of Psychology is Sigmund Freud.
• Psychology has its origin from two Greek words psyche (soul)
and logos (a rational course or a study)
Definition of Psychology : It is the scientific study of behavior
and mental process of organism.
Educational psychology is that branch of psychology, which
deals with improving the teaching and learning. It takes its
meaning from education, social process and from psychology,
a behavioral science (Skinner).
Fisheries extension is education and its main purpose is to
change the behaviour of farmers. Therefore, knowledge of
educational psychology is useful to extension agent for
understanding the factors affecting the teaching and learning
process.
IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN FISHERIES EXTENSION
• Psychology helps the extension agent to know the learner, his
interest, attitudes, aptitude, level of aspiration, intelligence,
interests, individual behaviour in group, etc. which plays a major
role in one's learning.
• Its main concern is on teaching and learning. This helps in
formulating training programmes for improving the knowledge and
skill of extension agent and farmers.
• It also helps in selection of teaching methods and aids for
organising effective learning situations and suggests technique of
learning as well as teaching.
• It also deals with the problem-solving which is very important for
extension agent to develop problem-solving skills amongst farmers.
• It helps extension agent to find causes of prejudices, the habit of
sticking to old practices of farming and ways of doing things, the
doubts and lack of confidence and factors affecting motivation.
• It also helps them to know the emotions and feelings of farmers,
how farmers learn new practices.
 Transfer of Technology
Definitions and characters
•Technology refers to ways of making or doing things. It is derived from the
Greek word “ techne” meaning art or craft and “logia” meaning area of study.
•A technology is a design for instrumental action that reduces the uncertainty in
the cause-effect relationships involved in achieving a desired outcome. A
technology usually has two components:
i. a hardware aspect consisting of tool that embodies the technology as
material or physical objects,
ii. a software aspect consisting of information base for the tool.
•According to Yotopoulos and Nugent (1976), a technology is a body of
knowledge that can be applied in productive process.
•Chattopadhyay (1976) pointed out the three attributes of a technology which
will make it acceptable to farmers as:
i. economic viability,
ii. suitability and
iii. conformity with the socio-economic attributes of farmers.
•Anderson (1979) suggested that a technology must be tested in three
conditions of appropriateness : i. resource ii. Needs and iii. goal
On the basis of the above definitions, the following are the
characteristics of a technology.
a. Science or scientific know- how
b. Art of systematic knowledge
c. Practical utility
d. Production potentiality
In nutshell, technology refers to the art of systematic knowledge of
science or scientific know-how, which may be practically utilized in the
related field for the purpose of boosting the production potentiality.
Technological development is the process of research and
development of technology . Many emerging technologies are
expected to become generally applied in the near future.
The new technology development process leans on the development
through the use of a technology (e.g. by introducing products that are
based on the new technology in the market).
The technology development stages include innovation, imitation,
technological competition and standardization.
 Transfer of Technology
• Technologies are generated for their application in the appropriate field.
This involves transfer of technology (ToT) which is one of the important
functions of extension service. Transfer of technology is needed for
improving the production potential and productivity in farming.
• Brooks (1966) defined “technology transfer” as the process by which
science and technology are diffused through human activity. According
to Shand (1976), ToT means translating the research findings or
technologies into actual practice in the farms by recipients or farmers
themselves. It implies the trial, evaluation and consequent adoption of
technologies generated.
The components of technology transfer are enlisted as under:
i. Science or scientific know-how,
ii. Dissemination,
iii. Application or utilization,
iv) Adoption and
v. Improved production.
A technology may be viewed as an appropriate
technology for a society if its design is relevant to
the real needs of that society, its use fulfill those
needs, its continuance and development are based
on the society’s economic and technical ability to
support, service, maintain and even improve upon
it. In farming , the number of potential adopters are
very large and they live in different socio-economic
and environmental conditions. So, in farming,
location-specific technologies are more appropriate.
i. TGS (Technology Generating System )
ii. TAS (Technology Assessment System )
iii. TDS (Technology Diffusion System )
iv. Feedback
v. TPS (Technology Practicing System )
Diffusion of farm technologies depend upon efficient
functioning of four systems of transfer of technology.
They are:
i. How the new technology (innovation) is evolved by the
scientists (Technology Generating System (TGS)/Research
system),
ii. How it is transmitted (Technology Diffusion System (TDS)
/ Extension system),
iii. How the farmers receive and adopt it (Technology
Practicing System (TPS)/ Client system) and
iv. How the situations help the farmers to adopt it (Support
System).
The feedback given by the client system on the
performance of the new technology will help the
research system to fine tune the deficiencies in the
technology to make it more appropriate to the client
system.
 Models of transfer of technology
I. Top-down-model (Conventional model)
Salient features
- Farmers act as passive recipients of technologies
- No contact between farmers and scientists
- Extension plays the role to persuade the farmers to adopt new
technologies
In this model, the client’s views and problems are not given due
importance which is an inherent problem of this model.
II. Feedback model
Salient features
- Research values identification of target group and its problems.
- Close interaction between research and extension systems.
- Research is carried out both at research farms and farmers’
fields
- Researchers include extension personnnel and social scientists
to have a holistic understanding of farmers’ problems.
III. Farmer- back to- farmer model (Farmer participatory
model)
- An alternative to the two models discussed earlier.
- Here the underlying assumption is that research
must begin and end with the farmer.
- The farmers must be incorporated as fully active
members of the problem solving team.
 Emerging concepts in TOT
• Participations Technology Development (PTD) is a new strategy in
TOT that acknowledges the superiority of rural people’s
accumulated wisdom and its use in generating new technologies by
the research systems. The rural people’s accumulated wisdom
which is also referred to as Traditional Knowledge (TK) or
Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) is the knowledge gathered by
a society over a period of time based on experience, trial and error,
natural selection and keen observation through centuries and it is
passed on from generation to generation by words of mouth. It
emphasizes on strengthening people’s capabilities to technology
development and extension. This strategy involves techniques like
Participatory rural Appraisal (PRA) , ITK and networking etc. for
efficient generation and transfer of technology.
Role of N.G.O.s and Voluntary Organisations and Self Help Groups in TOT in
Fisheries
No Government can build a Society. However, voluntary action can. Considering the
growing need for community development and social welfare activities in many
spheres and limitations experienced by the government to undertake them by
their own machinery, the Government has identified certain broader areas and
schemes in which the NGOs and VOs can participate. Some of the broader areas
include agriculture, animal husbandry , health, rural development, women
development, education, tribal welfare, and child care and disability. N.G.O.s and
Voluntary organisations with their contacts at the grass root levels are very much
aware of the important needs and problems of the local community. Hence, they
provide multiple services and perform various roles simultaneously. The major
contribution of our NGO in development is to organise, mobilize and utilise
resources within and outside the community for its development. Their major
contribution to development is not financial but organisational. NGOs can
complement government agencies in extension services. The role of NGOs and
Voluntary organisations in social development is more pronounced in developing
countries.
• NGOs can undertake technology transfer by conducting: training programmes
by their own staff or involving personnel from research organisations,
demonstrations , awareness campaigns, exhibitions and periodical
dissemination of information through mass media and publications. As they
have very good net working system at the grass root levels, they can ensure
community participation in such activities. As many NGOs approach the
clientele through Self Help Groups (SHGs), the individuals as members of such
groups have a binding on the decisions made by such groups.Thus, technology
transfer process can be hastened by involving NGOs and voluntary
organisations in such programmes.
• Now many NGOs are making their foray into research activities. Thus, they can
also do the work of technology generation.They can also serve as a link
between research system and client system and can thus provide vital feedback
on field problems and field performance of the innovations. Besides these, some
NGOs now provide services such as laboratory analysis works, input supplies
and helps the clients to avail institutional credit for adoption of some
innovations. Thus, NGOs , now play the multiple roles of technology generation,
technology diffusion system and supporting system for adoption in the field in
the transfer of technology process.
 Transfer of Technology Programmes in fisheries
- The All India co-ordinated Research Project (AICRP) on carp culture
was started in 1971 for demonstrating composite fish culture technology
in different agro-climatic zones.
- The Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK) were started in 1974 as grassroot
level institutions to impart need-based and skill–oriented vocational
training in agriculture and allied fields including fisheries through work
experience.
- Operational Research Project (ORP) was launched in 1974-75 to
disseminate proven technology in a cluster of villages for rapid
dissemination of technical know-how.
- Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA) was initiated in 1974-75 to
popularise fish culture technology. Training programmes were given to
selected beneficiaries. Assistance was also provided in construction and
renovation of water resources, arranging credit facilities from
nationalised banks, technical and input support and finally helping in
marketing the produce.
- The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) – Rural
Aquaculture Project was launched in 1975 with a thrust on
demonstration of various aspects of aquaculture – carp culture and
carp seed production, by providing technology and all necessary
inputs. This was operated in 75 villages in West Bengal and Orissa.
- NFDB (2006): Holistic development of the fisheries sector through
enhancement of fish production and productivity; to supplement
nutritious protein for the growing population; to accelerate the overall
economy of the country, besides improving health, economy, exports,
employment and tourism in the country.
- Lab to Land Project was launched in 1979 with the objective to transfer
technology from research laboratory to farmers’ fields.
- Brackishwater Fish Farmers’ Development Agency (1985-1990) was
established with an objective to promote shrimp fish farming in
brackishwaters.
- Institute Village Linkage programme (IVLP) was initiated in 1996 for
assessment and refinement of technology in the light of bio-
physical and socio-economic conditions.
- JaiVigyan Mission (2000) was started for ensuring household and
nutritional security through enhancing productivity in fisheries in
tribal, backward and hilly areas in Orissa, Assam and Chhattisgarh.
The above mentioned programmes were implemented in India.
In Bangaladesh, another approach viz. Trickle Down System (TDS)
designed by the FAO/UNDP was implemented on a pilot scale for
strengthening rural pond culture extension services in mid 1990.
Under this programme, 60 fish farmers were provided with
extension services to raise their average production from 1,000 to
2,000 kg./ha./year. In this TDS approach, each of the selected 60
fish farmers functioned as Result Demonstration Farmer to
neighbouring 10 fish farmers.
Constraints to Transfer of Aquaculture Technologies as
perceived by farmers
Socio-economic constraints
High cost of feed : feed constitutes around 50-60% of the total
variable cost in fish farming. Low-cost technology using
appropriate combination of locally available cheap feed
ingredients needs to be evolved and promoted.

Non-availability of quality seed : half of the surveyed farmers

could not get pure, healthy seed instead what they got was a
mixed one. Smaller size and high mortality are some other
constraints indicated by farmers. Non-availability of exotic carp
seed is also a limiting factor for culture operation. Aquaculture can
not be carried out without a reliable supply of fish-seed. To ensure
sustained supply of fingerlings in rural areas, it is essential to
involve private entrepreneurs to produce and distribute seed.
Absence of organized marketing: Fish is a highly perishable
commodity. Market for its speedy disposal is a pre-requisite for
fish-farming. Transportation also poses a problem for farmers.
In the absence of organized market, farmers sell their produce
to middleman. At times they are being deprived of remunerative
price. Due to lack of refrigeration/preservation facilities at the
village-level, major portion of the fish catch is sold as fresh.
The most common marketing channel through which fish is
reaching at the consumer is as follows:
Fish farmer Whole seller Retailer Consumer
As fish is marketed through middlemen, the fish-farmer is unable
to get major share of the consumer price since all these
intermediaries have profit margin. There is a wide gap between
what consumer pays and what farmers (producer) receives.
Poor technical skills of farmers: Future technologies are going to be
knowledge and skill-intensive. Surveys have shown that majority of the
fish-farmers follow old practices and as the consequence they get low
yields (sometimes below 1tonne/ha/year). Farmers lack expertise in
dealing with disease and mortality. Technical competency to bring about
adoption of new knowledge and skill is being emphasized. Informal
education, group discussion, community video and method demonstration
and help in reinforcing skill for improved technology.
Paucity of credit : The introduction of scientific fish farming necessitate
higher dozes of certain inputs which call for substantial amount of credit. In
India, most of the credit flows are from private non-institutional sector.
Merchants provide finance for fishing operation in Inland capture. Apart
from marketing agents, professional money-lenders advance credit against
securities of gold and agricultural properties. Problems like multiplicity of
ownership, non-recognition of aquaculture as land based activity, absence
of long - term leasing policy and non-assurance of seed supplies at the
appropriate time constrained the access to credit.
Social issues: Multi-ownership is considered another
constraint in the development of aquaculture in the
country as sizable number of owners would not be willing
for its use for fish culture or share initial investment for
improving pond. As joint owners get all the benefits
without any effort, it leads to conflict. The improved
technology envisages complete removal of weeds,
predatory fishes, insects and animals like frogs and
snakes from pond environment. Though initially the
unwanted animals are eradicated through application of
biocides, there is a danger of willful introduction by rivals
which causes biological hazards in the way of successful
operation of composite fish culture. Poaching and
poisoning are also indicated by farmers as social
problems hindering aquaculture operation.
Constraints as perceived by fishery extension officers:
The constraints perceived by Fisheries Extension Officers are
reported as:
problems caused by middleman
undesirable intervention by local leaders
guidance by superior is scanty
lack of opportunity for in-service training
lack of manpower
high target set for FEOs
lack of proper equipment
Lack of transportation facilities
lack of proper linkage with research system and marketing.
no incentive for good work
absence of other facilities of modern life
 Co-management
• Co-management is not a regulatory mechanism rather it is a participatory and
flexible management strategy. It provides and maintains a forum or structure for
action on: participation, rule making, conflict management, power sharing,
leadership, decision-making, negotiation, knowledge sharing, learning and
development, among resource users severs and government. It is not giving the
rights over fishery resources to somebody, but it is sharing the responsibility with
the resource users and other stakeholders for resource management and conflicts
management.
• Fisheries co-management can be defined as a partnership arrangement in which
the local resource users (fisher folk), the government and other relevant
stakeholders share the responsibility and the authority for the management of
fisheries. Fishers should primarily have the right to participate in key decisions
about various aspects of management.
• The focus in co-management is small-scale fishers because they contribute the
major part of the fishery sector. Their contribution to local food security is
significant. Further, they are weak because of poor financial conditions and their
technical capabilities. Hence, some kind of government support, as envisaged in
co-management, is needed for their social and economic securities.
 Goals of co-management
Sustainable management of fishery resources
Equity, empowerment and redistribution of power.
Better quality of life for coastal fishing communities.
Major thrust is sustainable management of fishery resources
through empowerment of resource users/fishing communities.
Fisheries co-management of a local fishery resource has the
mandates to resolve the issues of:
Scale of production in the light of sustainability
Kind of stakeholders to be involved depending on the nature
of the resource.
Delegation of management functions on different issues.
Establishment of co-ordination mechanism among the
stakeholders.
There is no definite model on co-management, but it is a spectrum of
management approaches. In the co-management spectrum, the
government can play a lead role in making regulations and its enforcement,
and capacity building. The community can take up major responsibilities on
stock enhancement through responsible fisheries, conflict management
among fishers and different stakeholders, formulation of management plan
for the fishery resources and enforcement of regulations. The spectrum of
management approaches will vary from one situation to another.
Co-management and women
Women should be a part of co-management because
Women are often a part of the fisheries (Involved in preparing for fishing
trips, artisanal fisheries, repairing nets, marketing and value addition)
United community will facilitate better management. Women’s role in
social networking and keeping good relations will help this process.
Women can create better awareness on resource conservation and
sustainable fisheries among the children (of fisher folk) who will become a
part of the co-management process at a later stage.
Role of researches and extension organizations in co-management
• The research organizations should provide necessary technical
guidance to the local community on scientific management of local
fishery resources. They have to help the community in stock
assessment and stock rehabilitation. They have to monitor the impacts
of various activity carried out by the stakeholders on the system to
suggest management strategies. Extension machinery should be
geared up to provide necessary services in this regard. The extension
machinery should provide a valuable service of sharing of information
between the stakeholders and research organizations. Vital information
on traditional knowledge, catches and catch composition should be
effectively used by the research organizations for better management
of the resources.
• Technologies on alternative livelihoods should be generated to evolve
alternative livelihood means to reduce fishing pressures. Extension
organizations and NGOs should play active roles in dissemination and
in developing local and community institutions to facilitate this process.
 Advantages of co-management
Sustainable utilization of local fishery resources
Conservation of local fisheries and their habitat.
Minimal social conflicts and maintain social
cohesion. Responsibilities on compliance with rules
and regulations and other management functions
lies with the fishing community.
Can make maximum use of indigenous knowledge
and expertise.
Sustainable income for the fishing community.
 Limitations of co-management
Only successful in communities with unity.
Involves enormous money and time on the part of
the individuals of the community to participate.
Characteristics of particular local resources may
pose lots of challenges in the management of
resources (e.g.. fish migration patterns)
 Emerging Issues of Fisheries Extension
Participatory fisheries management : Participatory fisheries
management is an innovative approach to decentralize
management authority and make fishermen resource
managers. The idea of resource users as resource managers
makes sense because it is in their interest to ensure that
fisheries resources, long term productivity, stability,
sustainability, equity and biodiversity are looked after.
What is participation?
Participation means ‘act of partaking’ or ‘sharing in’. It is also
defined as a dynamic group process in which all members of
a work group contribute, share or are influenced by
interchange of ideas or activities towards problem solving or
decision making.
Benefits from participatory fisheries management
Benefits of participatory fisheries management are:
i. Rational exploitation of fishing resources
ii. Equitable distribution of benefits
iii. Conformity to agreed terms
iv. Amicable conflict resolution
v. generates additional income
vi. benefits small indigenous species.
How to enlist people’s participation:
A clearly defined fishery boundary in the form of definite
location; type and number of stake holders (members of
the community, Panchayat, Fisheries Department etc.);
fishery resource to be managed; a local institutional set
up; bottom up planning; employment; benefit sharing.
Privatized fisheries extension:
Shrinking public investment, growing willingness of farmers to
pay for services, shifting priorities of aquaculture production
towards high value products- prawn, crab, ornamental
fishes, have led to immergence of privatized extension
services. Though it could be difficult to shift to privatized
mode, a beginning should be made in well-endowed areas.
Besides partial recovery of cost, privatization renders
extension system more accountable to information seekers.
Many private players are engaged in quality seed production,
intensive and super-intensive culture, processing, value-
addition, ornamental fish breeding and culture etc. Some
private firms have their own well knit network of R & D,
extension and marketing.
Gender issues in aquaculture
Woman have been involved in fishery related activities from time
immemorial. Until a few years ago, woman’s role was thought to be
confined to processing catch and marketing it to nearby places.
However, little is quantified about the contribution of woman in fishing
and other ancillary industries. Fishing has normally remained a man’s
domain. However, there are some fishing methods which are
practiced by woman.
Issues need to be addressed
‡Marginalization by new tools and systems
‡Marketing
‡Inadequate recognition
‡Gender bias
‡No specific government strategy to address gender roles in
fishery development
‡Poor extension linkage
Use of modern technologies
Modern tools including expert system, remote sensing,
geographical information system, cyber extension are presently
being used in fisheries. With these, there will be upsurge in
application of information technology in extension in future. Some
common tools using satellite communication are VSAT, GPS,
Remote sensing, GIS, PEZ etc.
New initiatives in fisheries extension
Single window delivery system
ATICs established at State Agricultural Universities and ICAR
institutes, forged a better interaction between researchers and
technology users. This service as a single window system with an
objective to help farmers and other stake holders to provide
solution to their location-specific problems and make available all
technological information along with technology inputs and
products for testing and use by them. Three such ATICs are
operative in specialized fisheries research institutes, viz. CIFA,
CMFRI, & CIFT.
Farm school on the AIR (Community Radio Centre)
Latest technologies are taught to farmers by offering series of lessons
broadcast over a period of time (3 months usually). Each broadcast
ends with a few questions, and audience are encouraged to
participate. Audience are asked to send in reply within a week time.
From among the right entries draw is conducted and selected ones
are awarded.
Aqua-service centres
Unemployed educated youth have started operating aqua-service
centres in the line of agri-clinics. These centres offering services like
soil and water testing, feed analysis, disease diagnosis, market
intelligence etc. Besides, these centres are in the business of selling
inputs like feed, fertilizers, pesticides, other therapeutics etc. In
Andhra Pradesh several such service centres could be found in
Kolleru lake area of West Godavari district. These are having various
nomenclatures, viz. farmer facility centre and aqua-service centre.
One-stop aqua shop
One-stop aqua shop (OAS) provides better access to farmers regarding
appropriate aquaculture technology as well as information on Government
schemes and rural banking and micro-finance. The shop is a single outlet for
all inputs that a fish-farmer may require in fish cultivation. The inputs include
fish feed, fertilizer, chemical etc. Besides, OAS is helping farmers in
providing information on fish farming through posters and information
brochures supplied by state departments and research institutes. This is
becoming quite popular.
Initiatives in information and communication technology (ICT)
applications Aqua choupal :
Aqua choupal, the unique web-based initiative of ITC Ltd, offers farmers of
Andhra Pradesh all the information, products and services they need to
enhance productivity, improve farm gate price realization and cut transaction
costs. Farmers can access latest local and global information on weather,
scientific farming practices and market prices at village itself through web
portal. Aqua choupal also facilitates supply of high quality farm inputs as well
as purchase of shrimps at their doorstep.
The fruits and benefits of an effective extension service have
long been recognized, yet very often extension services in
developing countries have failed to accomplish desired
objectives and meet people’s expectations. In Indian
context, role of agricultural extension in brining benefits of
the green revolution to farmers and making country self-
reliant in food production has been appreciated.
Leadership in extension requires skillful communication. Much
misunderstanding results from faulty communication.
Progress is slowed when too many people say the wrong
things, at the wrong time in the wrong ways, to the wrong
people. Saying the right things, at the right time, in the right
way, to the right people is the formula for good
communication.
 Role of Women in Fisheries Services
According to the CMFRI census (2005):
• Women form 48 per cent of the marine fisher folk population
• The sex ratio for fishing communities is maximum in Kerala (980)
and minimum in west Bengal (898), among the states of India.
• It has been noticed that generally the sex ratio is lower in fishing
communities, than in other communities.
• Among women the major fishing-related activities are:
• Marketing (41.8 per cent),
• Labour (18.4 per cent) and
• Curing/processing (18 per cent).
• Further as many as 73.6 per cent of those engaged in marketing
are women, while 75.7 per cent of those in curing and processing
are also women.
Women are engaged in a wide range of activities in the
fisheries and in fishing communities all around the
world:
1. As workers (paid and unpaid) within the fisheries, in pre-
and post-harvest activities, including work with institutions
and agencies . in many countries, it is mostly women who
are engaged in inland fishing and aquaculture.
2. As workers in seafood processing plants
3. As caregivers of the family and in maintaining social
networks and the culture of the community
4. As workers in non-fisheries sectors to supplement the
household income, and the often erratic returns from the
fisher
5. As members of fish worker movements and fishers'
organizations
To ensure better involvement of women in aquaculture
development as well as improve the economic condition of
women the following aspects are to be considered:
To develop active cooperation amongst the R&D institutions,
agricultural universities, state governments, fisheries departments
and marketing agencies in collaboration with voluntary organizations.
To ensure facility for quality maintenance, long shelf life and proper
storage of diversified fish products
To provide financial assistance by relevant agencies to trainee
women to enable them to form cooperative societies to start their
production units
A better understanding of the existing gender relations in the
community and the household must be gained by
institutions/organizations working for the development of aquaculture.
Participatory technology development offers more scope to
incorporate women's experiences.
• Workshops and meetings should be organized to cultivate
awareness on gender equality in the community and among
people working for aquaculture development. Successful cases
of women's involvement in aquaculture can be emphasized
• Effective training on need-based technologies before setting up
any project is a very important step, While dealing with the
womenfolk, particularly from the far off villages, it often
becomes problematic to organize their on-campus training
programme, Under such situations, the training programmes
have to be organized at the village itself with very limited scope
for practical demonstrations
• Extension programmes launched for the womenfolk in rural
areas are often very difficult to manage unless there is a well-
versed lady in between to act as a negotiator.
• There must be a provision to have greater number of
female extension workers in respective fields in order to
provide a fillip to the projects, which are exclusively
designed for the rural womenfolk
• Development of indicators to ensure that the involvement
of women is monitored on a regular basis so that their
activities or participation in aquaculture can be refocused
regularly