Charles Darwin

and The
Theory of
Evolution
After studying this chapter, you
should be able to:

• Understand the framework of Life

Sciences in general
• Explain how species evolve through
natural selection
• Identify and understand the evidence
that support the theory of evolution
Do you believe in evolution?

Provide reasons for or against

evolution, explaining each.
 Long-Term Evolution Experiment (LTEE)

• Since 24 February 1988

• 12 initially identical populations of asexual Escherichia coli bacteria
• As of May 2022, the populations reached 75,000 generations
Long-Term
Evolution
Experiment
(LTEE)
• Changes in fitness: the populations grew
approximately 70% faster than the ancestral
strain
• Genome evolution: of the 12 populations, six
have so far been reported to have developed
defects in their ability to repair DNA
• Evolution of increased cell size in all twelve
populations
• Ecological specialization: the populations have
evolved to specialize on the glucose resource on
which they grow
• Evolution of balanced polymorphism and simple
ecosystems: two distinct variants, S and L,
based on their formation of small and large
colonies
• Evolution of aerobic citrate usage in one
population
1.6: Models, Theories, and Laws
Models, Theories, and Laws

Used to help scientists analyze the

data they have already collected.

Often after a model, theory, or law

has been developed, it points
scientists toward new discoveries.
1.7: Models

A model is a representation (mental model) of

something that is often too difficult (or impossible)
to display directly.

While a model is justified with experimental proof,

it is only accurate under limited situations.

Physicists use models for a variety of purposes.

For example, models can help physicists analyze
a scenario and perform a calculation, or they
can be used to represent a situation in the form
of a computer simulation.
An example is the planetary model
of the atom in which electrons are
pictured as orbiting the nucleus,
analogous to the way planets orbit
the Sun.
1.8: Theories
Theory is a well-confirmed type of explanation of
nature, made in a way consistent with the scientific
method, and fulfilling the criteria required by
modern science.

Scientific tests should be able to provide empirical

support, or empirical falsification ("falsify") of it.

Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous,

and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge.
In contrast to more common uses of the word
"theory" that imply that something is unproven or
speculative (hypothesis).
A theory is an explanation for
patterns in nature that is supported
by scientific evidence and verified
multiple times by various groups of
researchers.
1.9: Laws
A law uses concise description of a generalized
pattern in nature that is supported by scientific
evidence and repeated experiments.

Laws and theories are similar in that they are both

scientific statements that result from a tested
hypothesis and are supported by scientific evidence.

A law can be expressed in the form of a single

mathematical equation.
Example: the law that energy is conserved during any
process; Newton’s second law of motion, which relates
force, mass, and acceleration by the simple equation
F = ma.
Such laws are intrinsic to the
universe, we can only discover and
understand them. The cornerstone of
discovering natural laws is
observation; science must describe
the universe as it is, not as we may
imagine it to be.
1.10 Theories and Model; Theories vs Laws
Some theories does not require a model or mental
image, because we can observe the objects directly
with our own senses. (Newton’s theory of gravity)

Some requires a model, for example the kinetic

theory of gases in which a gas is viewed as being
composed of atoms and molecules.

The biggest difference between a law and a theory is

that a theory is much more complex and dynamic.

A law describes a single action, whereas a theory

explains an entire group of related phenomena.

And, whereas a law is a postulate that forms the

foundation of the scientific method, a theory is the
end result of that process.
 What is Evolution?
• Evolution is the change in
inheritable traits in a
population over generations.
• Change in traits is caused by
changes in the genes (in
DNA) that code for those
traits.
• Natural selection tends to
increase favorable traits in a
population and decrease
unfavorable traits.
 What is Evolution?
Population evolve through natural
selection, as observed, when the
following conditions are met.
• Reproduction, the act or process of
producing offspring
• Heredity, the passing on of traits
from parents to their offspring
• Variation of traits among
individuals in population
• Competition for limited resources
 What Evolution is NOT

Many people argue against evolution based on

statements they have heard. Yet many of those
statements are ideas that are not part of
evolutionary theory.
 Evolution is NOT about things
getting “better and better” or more
and more complex.

Selection is about survival and reproduction.

Organisms with traits that help them survive long
enough to reproduce will pass their genes on.
 Evolution is NOT about
organisms “trying” to adapt.

“Trying” does not change genes. Only inheritable

traits already in a population can be passed on.
 Evolution does NOT give
organisms what they “need.”

If that were true, there would never be deaths or

species extinctions. If individuals have traits that help
them survive environmental change, they may pass
those traits on while others die.
Evolution does NOT mean that
individuals in a population
slowly change.

Change happens to populations over generations as those with

unfavorable traits are weeded out and those with favorable traits
are more likely to reproduce.
Evolution is NOT a theory of
how life began.

Evolution explains how living organisms

change over generations.
Darwin and Wallace observed that change did not happen
equally to all members of a population, as Buffon and
Lamarck thought.
Instead, Darwin and Wallace proposed that selection happens each
generation. Some individuals have traits that help them survive
and reproduce, while others have traits that put them at a
disadvantage.

Over generations, the number of individuals with favorable traits

increases while those with unfavorable traits decrease.
Evolution is a Scientific Theory
• Theories are evidence-
supported explanations for
natural phenomenon.
• To exist, theories must have
abundant evidence from many
well-tested hypotheses.
• Theories grow from evidence!
Theorizing without evidence
is not science!
 Evidence for Evolution
• Both Darwin and Wallace were convinced
that evolution -- change in the traits of a
population over time -- did happen.
• Darwin spent over 20 years collecting
evidence and reading research by others
before he wrote On the Origin of Species. He
found many features of organisms that
suggested they were related by ancestry.
Fossils

Fossils showed that

species existed in the
past that no longer
exist today, and
species exist today
that did not exist in
the past.
Fossils
- Slow natural geologic processes
- Dating of rocks by elemental
analysis
Fossils

In many groups of organisms, fossils demonstrated

change from one form to another over long periods of
time.
Homologous Structures

Four-limbed vertebrate animals all have the same bones in the

forelimbs, but the bones are shaped differently. In modern terms,
this suggests a shared set of genes (for the bones) arising from
common ancestry.
Vestigial Structures

Why do big snakes,

like boas, have tiny
little hind limbs?

Why do whales have

hip bones?
Vestigial Structures
Can you wiggle your ears?
(Without using your hands!)
 Analogous Structures

The influence of the environment is seen in analogous

structures, where less-related species living in similar
environments have similar body forms, though often involving
different body parts. From variations in a population, the
environment selects those that best help an organisms survive in
that environment.
Analogous Structures

Echidna Porcupine Hedgehog

(Australia) (North America) (Europe)

Spiny Euphorbia Golden Barrel Cactus

(South Africa) (North America)
Embryological Similarities

Are these organisms very different looking?

 How about now?

Lemur Pig Human

Similar structures and similar developmental processes in

embryos demonstrate a shared set of genes between groups of
organisms, suggesting common ancestry.

Note: Humans do not become fish or grow gills during development. We do share several
embryological features with other vertebrate animals.
 Biochemical and Genetic Analysis
All cells use:
• DNA as heritable genetic information
• RNA and ribosomes to make proteins
• roughly same 20 amino acids to build
proteins
• ATP to carry energy

DNA to Expressed genes

Of course, molecular evidence wasn’t available
to Darwin. Publication of The Origin inspired
scientists to figure out how heredity worked!
 Biochemical and Genetic Analysis

Darwin inferred shared

ancestry from shared
traits.

Modern analysis of
DNA demonstrates
shared genes for many
traits between related
species, suggesting
descent from a common
Mice and humans both have the gene for the protein
ancestor. Cytochrome c. Small differences show changes over time
as the two groups diverged.
 Recap

• Evolution is the change in inherited

traits in a population over generations.
• Fossils, molecular data, and other
evidence shows that the genetics of a
population do change over time.
• Natural Selection, one mechanism for
change, is well-supported by evidence.
THANK YOU!