RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION
(Interpretation of Data)
Mercedes M. Ruiz
Principal II
BAUTISTA NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
• What are your
expectations regarding
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION?
 By the end of this session, the participants
should be able to:
Define data;
Differentiate the types of data; and
Determine the ways to present the data
scientifically and systematically.
How do you present
result?
 Fact or Fake
• Encourages changes in the schools
• Fosters authoritarian approach to education
• Empowers individuals through collaboration
on projects
• Encourages principals to reflect on their
practices
• Promotes a process of testing new ideas
What is DATA?
 Data
Any observation collected in
respect of any characteristic
or event is called data.
How will you convert
data into information?
 Information
Raw data carry/convey little meaning,
when it is considered alone.
The data is minimized,
processed/analyzed and then presented
systematically. So that it is converted into
Information.
It is important to note that data, that is
not converted into information is of little
value for evaluation and planning and can
not be used by those who are involved in
decision making.
What are the types of
data?
 Types of Data
To give a holistic picture of
classification data can divided into
two types
• Quantitative data (numerical)
• Qualitative data (descriptive,
categorical/frequency count)
 Quantitative Data
The data , that can be
expressed in numbers/ figures is
called quantitative data. In this
the exact measures are possible.
Two Types of Quantitative Data
(a) Discrete:
Discrete variables can take only certain values
and none in between e. g number of patients in a
hospital census may be 178 or 179, but it cannot be
in between these two, similarly the number of
syringes used in a clinic in one day or number of
children in a family. It is expressed in whole number.
(b) Continuous:
Continuous variables may take any value
(typically between certain limits). For example age
(25.5 years), weight (70.5 kg), height (1.5 meter) ,
hemoglobin (12.5 gm), blood pressure (135/95). It
can be expressed in decimals.
 Qualitative Data
• Also called descriptive/ categorical data/
frequency count.
• When the data are arranged in categories on
the basis of their quality and there is gap
between two values, it is called qualitative
data, e.g name, religion, marital status,
socioeconomic status, awareness.
• Qualitative data cannot be expressed in
numerical forms.
 Types of Qualitative Data
Nominal data:
Nominal scale data are divided into
categories, that are only distinguished by their
name and labels and cannot be classified one
above another e.g race, name , sex, name of
country, name of crops, type of blood. In this
type of data there is no implication of order or
ratio.
Nominal data that falls into two groups are
called dichotomous data e.g male/ female,
black/white, rural/ urban.
Ordinal data:
When the categorical data can be placed
in meaningful order on the basis of their
quality, it is known as ordinal data. In this
the exact difference between the two
groups cannot be estimated e.g pain
categorized as mild, moderate and severe.
Similarly scoring of students categorized
as A (70% and above), B (60-69 %), C
(50-59 %). In this the exact difference
between the students placed in grade A
and B cannot be estimated.
Interval:
Interval scale data are like ordinal data in
that they can be placed in a meaningful order.
The categories are arranged in equally spaced
units and there is no absolute zero point e.g
temperature where 0 ˚ C does not mean no
temperature but is equal to 32 ˚ F or 273 K
( Kelvin scale ).
In addition they have meaningful intervals
between items, which are usually measured
quantities. For example on the Celsius scale the
difference between 100 ˚ C and 90 ˚ C is the same
as the difference between 50 ˚ C and 40 ˚ C.
However because interval scales do not have an
absolute zero, ratio of scores are not meaningful
e.g 100 ˚ C is not twice as hot as 50 ˚ C, because 0
˚ C does not indicate a complete absence of heat.
Ratio:
A ratio scale has the same properties as an
interval scale; however, because it has an
absolute zero, meaningful ratios do exist.
Most biomedical variables form a ratio scale e.g
weight in grams or pounds, time in seconds or
days, blood pressure in millimeters of mercury,
and pulse rate in beats per minute are all ratio
scale data.
The only ratio scale of temperature is the Kelvin
scale, in which zero degree indicates an absolute
absence of heat, just as a zero pulse rate
indicates an absolute lack of heartbeat. Therefore
it is correct to say that a pulse rate of 120
beats/min is twice as fast as pulse rate of 60
beats / min, or that 300 K is twice as hot as 150
K.
How do you
present data?
 Principles of Data Presentation
(a) To arrange the data in such a way that it
should create interest in the reader’s mind
at the first sight.
(b) To present the information in a compact
and concise form without losing important
details.
(c) To present the data in a simple form so
as to draw the conclusion directly by
viewing at the data.
(d) To present it in such away that it can
help in further statistical analysis.
 Presentation of Data

Data

Tabular Graphical

Simple table complex table For quantitative data For qualitative data
1. Histogram 1. Bar chart
2. Frequency polygon 2. Pictogram
3. Frequency curve 3. Pie chart
4. Line chart 4. Map diagram
5. Normal distribution curve
6. Cumulative distribution curve
7.Scatter diagram
 Tabulation
Tables are the devices, that are used to
present the data in a simple form. It is
probably the first step before the data is
used for analysis or interpretation.

Types of Tables
1) Simple tables :Measurements of single
set are presented
2) Complex tables :Measurements of
multiple sets are presented
 General Principles of Designing Tables

a) The tables should be numbered e.g table 1, table 2 etc.

b) A title must be given to each table, which should be
brief and self explanatory.
c) The headings of columns or rows should be clear and
concise.
d) The data must be presented according to size or
importance chronologically, alphabetically, or
geographically.
e) If percentages or averages are to be compared, they
should be placed as close as possible.
f) No table should be too large
g) Most of the people find a vertical arrangement better
than a horizontal one because, it is easier to scan the
data from top to bottom than from left to right
h) Foot notes may be given, where necessary, providing
explanatory notes or additional information.
 Simple Table
When characteristics with values are presented in
the form of table, it is known as simple table e.g
Table 4.4
Infant mortality rate of selected countries in 2004

Name of Country Infant Mortality Rate

Pakistan 90
Bangladesh 60
Sri Lanka 26
India 60
 Frequency Distribution Table
• In the frequency distribution table, the data
is first split up into convenient groups (class
interval) and the number of items
(frequency) which occur in each group is
shown in adjacent columns.
• Hence it is a table showing the frequency
with which the values are distributed in
different groups or classes with some
defined characteristics.
 Rules for Construction of
Frequency Table
1) The class interval should not be too large or too
small
2) The number of classes to be formed more than 8 and
less than 15
3) The class interval should be equal and uniform
through out the classification.
4) After construction of table, proper and clear heading
should be given to it
5) The base or source of data should be mentioned with
the pattern of analysis in footnote at the end of table
Frequency Distribution Table
Table 3
Age Distribution of Polio Patients
Age Number of Patients
O-4 35
5-9 18
10-14 11
15-19 8
20-24 6
 Table1.2
Grouped, relative, and cumulative frequency
distributions if serum cholesterol levels in 200 men
Interval Frequency f relative f cumulative f

251-260 5 2.5 100.0

241-250 13 6.5 97.5
231-240 19 9.5 91.0
221-230 18 9.0 81.5
211-220 38 19.0 72.5
201-210 72 36.0 53.5
191-200 14 7.0 17.5
181-190 12 6.0 10.5
171-180 5 2.5 4.5
161-170 4 2.0 2.0
 Charts and Diagrams
Charts and diagrams
are useful methods of
presenting simple data.
 Uses
 They have powerful impact on imagination of people.
 Gives information at a glance.
 Diagrams are better retained in memory than
statistical table.
 However graphs cannot be substituted for statistical
table, because the graphs cannot have
mathematical treatment where as tables can be treated
mathematically.
 Whenever graphs are compared , the difference in
the scale should be noted.
 It should be remembered that a lot of details and
accuracy of original data is lost in charts and
diagrams, and if we want the real study, we have to go
back to the original data.
 Common Diagrams
Pie chart Frequency
Simple bar polygon
diagram Frequency curve
Multiple bar O give curve
diagram Scatter diagram
Component bar Line diagram
diagram or Pictogram
subdivided bar Statistical maps
diagram
Histogram
 Bar Charts
• The data presented is categorical
• Data is presented in the form of
rectangular bar of equal breadth.
• Each bar represent one variant /attribute.
• Suitable scale should be indicated and
scale starts from zero.
• The width of the bar and the gaps
between the bars should be equal
throughout.
• The length of the bar is proportional to
the magnitude/ frequency of the variable.
• The bars may be vertical or horizontal.
 Bar Charts
Year Wise Enrollment of students in Government school
300
300
260
230
250
200
200 160
150
150 120
100
100 70

50

0
One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine

No. of Students
 Multiple Bar Charts
• Also called compound bar charts
• More then one sub-attribute of variable can
be expressed
60
Percentage of World Total

50 Population
Land
40

30

20

10

0
Asia Europe Africa Latin USSR North Oceania
America America
 Component Bar Charts
• When there are many categories on X-axis (more
than 5) and they have further subcategories, then
to accommodate the categories, the bars may be
divided into parts, each part representing a
certain item and proportional to the magnitude of
that particular item
Pakistan: Growth of Population

800
Population in Million

700
Growth
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
01

11

21

31

41

51

61

71

81

91

01
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

Censs Decades
 Component Bar Chart

120
100
80
Female
60
Male
40
20
0
Pakistan USA Sweden
 Histogram
• Used for Quantitative, Continuous,
Variables.
• It is used to present variables which have
no gaps e.g age, weight, height, blood
pressure, blood sugar etc.
• It consist of a series of blocks. The class
intervals are given along horizontal axis
and the frequency along the vertical axis.
 Histogram of Grouped frequency distrinution of
serum cholestrol levels in 200 men

80
70
60
frequency

50
40
30
20
10
0
161- 171- 181- 191- 201- 211- 221- 231- 241- 251-
170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
Serum Cholestrol, mg/dl
Frequency Polygon
Frequency polygon is an area diagram of
frequency distribution over a histogram.
It is a linear representation of a frequency
table and histogram, obtained by joining the
mid points of the hitogram blocks.
Frequency is plotted at the central point of a
group
percentage total frequency

250

200

150
percentage total
100 frequency

50

0
59-69 69-79 79-89 89-99 99- 109- 119- 129-
109 119 129 139
Normal Frequency Distribution Curve
 Frequency polygons may take many different shapes, but
many naturally occurring phenomena are approximately
distributed according to the symmetrical, bell-shaped
normal or Gaussian distribution.
 In normal distribution curve, the three measures of
central tendency are identical. approximately 68% of the
distributions falls within +_
1 standard deviation of the mean .
approximately 95% of the distributions falls within +_
2 standard deviation of the mean
approximately 99.7% of the distributions falls within
+_
3 standard deviation of the mean
men and women (each gender forms its own distribution
around a different midpoint).
Asymmetrical distribution are called skewed distributions.
The three measures of central tendency differ. Mode is
highest point on curve, the mean is pulled up or down by
the influence of a relatively small number of very high or
very low scores and the median lies between the two.
 n Positively (or right) skewed distributions and negatively
(or left) skewed distributions cabe identified by the
location of the tail of the curve.
 Positively skewed distributions have a relatively large
number of low scores and a small number of very high
scores.
 Negatively skewed distributions have relatively large
number of high scores and a small number of low scores.
 Bimodal distributions are sometimes a combination of two
underlying normal distributions, such as the heights of a
large number of men and women (each gender forms its
own distribution around a different midpoint).
 Line Diagram
Line diagrams are used to show the trend
of events with the passage of time.
Line diagram showing the malaria cases
reported throughout the word excluding
African region during 1972-78
10

1972 73 74 75
 Pie Charts
Most common way of presenting data
The value of each category is divided by the
total values and then multiplied by 360 and
then each category is allocated the respective
angle to present the proportion it has.
It is often necessary to indicate percentages in
the segment as it may not be sometimes very
easy virtually, to compare the areas of
segments.
Pie Charts
 Pie Charts
• Question-: In a DHQ Hospital 120 Doctors are
working.60 doctors went to Lahore to attend a
workshop.20 doctors went on long leave.30 doctors
were retired.
• Show this data by Pie chart.

D o c t o rs w e n t t o
L a h o re
D o c t o rs re t ire d

D o c t o rs o n le a ve

W o rk in g d o c t o rs
 Pictogram
• Popular method of presenting data to those
who cannot understand orthodox charts.
• Small pictures or symbols are used to
present the data, e.g a picture of a doctor
to represent the population physician.
• Fraction of the picture can be used to
represent numbers smaller than the value
of whole symbol
 Statistical Maps
• When statistical data refers to geographic
or administrative areas, it is presented
either as statistical map or dot map.
• The shaded maps are used to present data
of varying size. The areas are shaded with
different colour or different intensities of
the same colour, which is indicated in the
key.
 Scatter Diagram
Scatter diagrams show the relationship
between the two variables e.g a positive
correlation/ association between the intake
of fat and sugar in the average diets of 41
countries.
If the dots cluster round a straight line, it
shows evidence of a relationship of a linear
nature.
If there is no such cluster, it is probable that
there is no relationship between the
variables.
 Tips for the Presentation, Analysis
and Interpretation of Data
• Organize data into logical, sequential, and
meaningful categories and classifications to
make them amenable to the study and
interpretation.
• Explain the data or facts in terms of quantity,
quality, attributes, traits, patterns, trends,
relationships among others so as to answer
research questions/ problems or hypotheses,
which involve statistical techniques and
procedures.
• Give the possible meaning, probable
causes and effects of a situation or a
condition as revealed by the findings.
• Suggest to continue the situation if the
outcome is good and if otherwise, some
remedies or measures should be done
to eradicate or minimize its bad effects.
• Mention those who will benefit or will
suffer from the study.
 Some Phrases Used for the Analysis
and Interpretation of Results

• It appears therefore that the…

• It was noteworthy that…
• It should be noted from the responses
that…
• It should be mentioned that…
• It is expected that…
• Undoubtedly, many of the respondents
claim that…
THE SCHOOL PROFILE
OF
REGION 4-A –
CALABARZON
(45 sample schools)
Table A. Type of Position/Designation of School
Heads in Region 4 – A
Position/Designation
f %

Principal 1
8 18%
Principal 2 12 27%
Principal 3 24 53%
Principal 4 0 0
HT 0 0
Graph A. Graph of the Number of Position/Designation of School
Heads in Region 4 - A

50%

53%
27%
18
%
10% 2%
P1 P2 P3 TIC
Interpretation
Graph A shows that 53% of the School Heads occupy
P3 position; 12%, 8% of them sit in the P2 and P1
positions respectively; the lowest 2% of the School
Heads belong to Teacher-In-Charge position.
This implies that the Office of the Region needs
additional items for School Heads position; the
number of NQESH passers is low (2010 – present);
and position item for full-fledged principal is one of
the motivating factors to lead the school effectively
and efficiently.
 Table B. Communication Gadgets of School
Heads in Region 4 – A

Types of Communication
f %
Landline
7 15%

Tele-fax 5 11%

Cellular Phone 30 66%

Emai-Address 4 8%

Total 45 100%
Interpretation:
Table B shows that 65% of the schools use
Cell phone as the medium of communication,
15% use landline, 12% and 8% use fax
machine and email respectively, as their
medium of communication.
The data implies that social media (eg.
twitter, facebook, email, etc.) among
Divisions of the Region need to be enhanced
for effective and easy communication.
Graph B. Graph of the Communication Gadgets of School Heads

100
%

50%
65%

15%
12%
10% 8%

LL Fax Cell P Email

Conclusions
CONCLUSIONS
• Conclusions are logical deductions
based on the data in the Findings section
• Usually includes a comprehensive
summary of the findings
• Ends with a statement which will lead to
the Recommendations section
 Guidelines
• There should be no numerals.
• The study should be based on the
findings of the study.
• They should answer each of the
problems set for investigation and
presented in the same order as to how
the problems and findings were
presented.
• They should be as many as the
number of problems set or the
number of summarized findings of
the study.
• They should be reworded so as not to
repeat any information given in the
earlier part of the research.
• There should be no statements of
doubts or opinions and so the use of
perhaps, maybe, probably, and the
like should be avoided.
Recommendations
 Recommendations should be
• Logical – should flow logically from
the conclusions
• Relevant – must meet the purpose
and the scope as stated in the
Introduction section
• Feasible – must be practical and
workable
How to write recommendations
• Brief – write concisely; any reason for
recommendation should only be given if
necessary
• Clear – do not be ambiguous as to how
the suggestion should be implemented
• Precise – vague recommendations
usually result from insufficient research /
analysis
Guidelines
• They should aim to solve
problems set in the study.
• They should be based on the
results of the study and
conclusions made.
• They should aim for ideal but
must be feasible, practical, and
attainable.
• They could include suggestions in terms
of the following aspects:
- Continuance of a good practice or
system.
- Improvement of an ineffective/
inefficient practice or system
- Further research with the proposed
topics that could either support or negate
the findings of the study.
- Policies that can formulated as an
offshoot of the study.
Sample Tabulation of Result
More Examples
Example 2
Discussion on Observation &
Interview
Recommendation