CH07

The Essential Cosmic Perspective
Ninth Edition
Chapter 7
Earth and the Terrestrial
Worlds
Copyright © 2022, 2018, 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Why Is Earth Geologically Active?
Earth's Interior
• Core: Highest density;
nickel and iron
• Mantle: Moderate
density; minerals with
silicon, oxygen, etc.
• Crust: Lowest density;
granite, basalt, etc.
Terrestrial Planet Interiors
• Applying what we have learned about Earth's interior to

other planets tells us what their interiors are probably like.
Why Do Water and Oil Separate? (1 of 2)
A. Water molecules repel oil molecules electrically.
B. Water is denser than oil, so oil floats on water.
C. Oil is more slippery than water, so it slides to the
surface of the water.
D. Oil molecules are bigger than the spaces between
water molecules.
Why Do Water and Oil Separate? (2 of 2)
A. Water molecules repel oil molecules electrically.
B. Water is denser than oil, so oil floats on water.
C. Oil is more slippery than water, so it slides to the
surface of the water.
D. Oil molecules are bigger than the spaces between
water molecules.
Differentiation
• Gravity pulls high-
density material to
center.
• Lower-density material
rises to surface.
• Material ends up
separated by density.
Thought Question 1 (1 of 2)
What is necessary for differentiation to occur in a planet?
A. It must have metal and rock in it.
B. It must be a mix of materials of different density.
C. Material inside must be able to flow.
D. All of the above
E. B and C
What is necessary for differentiation to occur in a planet?
A. It must have metal and rock in it.
B. It must be a mix of materials of different density.
C. Material inside must be able to flow.
D. All of the above
E. B and C
Lithosphere
• A planet's outer layer
of cool, rigid rock is
called the lithosphere.
• It “floats” on the
warmer, softer rock
that lies beneath.
Do rocks s-t-r-e-t-c-h?
A. No. Rock is rigid and cannot deform without breaking.
B. Yes, but only if it is molten rock.
C. Yes. Rock under strain may slowly deform.
Do rocks s-t-r-e-t-c-h?
A. No. Rock is rigid and cannot deform without breaking.
B. Yes, but only if it is molten rock.
C. Yes. Rock under strain may slowly deform.
Strength of Rock
• Rock stretches when
pulled slowly but
breaks when pulled
rapidly.
• The gravity of a large
world pulls slowly on
its rocky content,
shaping the world
into a sphere.
Heat Drives Geological Activity
Convection: Hot
rock rises, cool
rock falls.
One convection
cycle takes 100
million years on
Earth.
Sources of Internal Heat
1. Gravitational potential energy of accreting
planetesimals
2. Differentiation
3. Radioactivity
Heating of Interior Over Time
• Accretion and differentiation when planets were young
• Radioactive decay is most important heat source today
Cooling of Interior
• Convection
transports heat as hot
material rises and
cool material falls.
• Conduction transfers
heat from hot material
to cool material.
• Radiation sends
energy into space.
What cools off faster?
A. A grande-size cup of Starbucks coffee
B. A teaspoon of cappuccino in the same cup
A. A grande-size cup of Starbucks coffee
B. A teaspoon of cappuccino in the same cup
A. A big terrestrial planet
B. A tiny terrestrial planet
A. A big terrestrial planet
B. A tiny terrestrial planet
Role of Size
• Smaller worlds cool off faster and harden earlier.

• The Moon and Mercury are now geologically “dead”.
Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio
• Heat content depends on volume.
• Loss of heat through radiation depends on surface area.
• Time to cool depends on surface area divided by volume:
• Larger objects have a smaller ratio and cool more slowly.
Planetary Magnetic Fields
Moving charged particles create magnetic fields.

A planet's interior can create magnetic fields if its core is
electrically conducting, convecting, and rotating.
Earth's Magnetosphere
• Earth's magnetic field protects us from charged particles from
the Sun.
• The charged particles can create aurorae.
If the planet core is cold, do you expect it to have
magnetic fields?
A. Yes. Refrigerator magnets are cold, and they have
magnetic fields.
B. No. Planetary magnetic fields are generated by moving
charges around, and if the core is cold, nothing is
moving.
If the planet core is cold, do you expect it to have
magnetic fields?
A. Yes. Refrigerator magnets are cold, and they have
magnetic fields.
B. No. Planetary magnetic fields are generated by
moving charges around, and if the core is cold,
nothing is moving.
Special Topic: How Do We Know What's
Inside a Planet? (1 of 2)
• Earthquakes!
• P waves push
matter back and
forth.
• S waves shake
matter side to
side.
Special Topic: How Do We Know What's
Inside a Planet? (2 of 2)
• P waves go through
Earth's core, but S
waves do not.
• We conclude that Earth's
core must have a liquid
outer layer.
What Processes Shape Earth's Surface?
Geological Processes
• Impact cratering
– Impacts by asteroids or comets
• Volcanism
– Eruption of molten rock onto surface
• Tectonics
– Disruption of a planet's surface by internal stresses
• Erosion
– Surface changes made by wind, water, or ice
Impact Cratering
• Most cratering happened soon after
the solar system formed.
• Craters are about 10 times wider than
the objects that made them.
• Small craters greatly outnumber large
ones.
Impact Craters
Volcanism
• Volcanism happens when
molten rock (magma) finds
a path through lithosphere
to the surface.
• Molten rock is called lava
after it reaches the surface.
Outgassing
• Volcanism also
releases gases from
Earth's interior into
the atmosphere.
Tectonics
• Convection of the mantle creates stresses in the crust

called tectonic forces.
• Compression forces make mountain ranges.
• A valley can form where the crust is pulled apart.
Erosion
• Erosion is a blanket term for weather-driven processes
that break down or transport rock.
• Processes that cause erosion include
– Glaciers
– Rivers
– Wind
Erosion by Water
• The Colorado River

continues to carve the
Grand Canyon.
Erosion by Ice
• Glaciers carved the

Yosemite Valley.
Erosion by Wind
• Wind wears away

rock and builds up
sand dunes.
Erosional Debris
• Erosion can create

new features by
depositing debris.
How Does Earth's Atmosphere Affect the
Planet?
Effects of Atmosphere on Earth
1. Erosion
2. Radiation protection
3. Greenhouse effect
4. Makes the sky blue!
Radiation Protection
• All x-ray light is absorbed
very high in the
atmosphere.
• Ultraviolet light is
absorbed by ozone
The Greenhouse Effect
Atmospheric Absorption
Earth's atmosphere absorbs light at most wavelengths.
Greenhouse Effect:
Certain molecules
let sunlight through
but trap escaping
infrared photons.
A Greenhouse Gas
• Any gas that absorbs infrared
• Greenhouse gas: molecules with two different types of
elements
• Not a greenhouse gas: molecules with one or two atoms
of the same element
Why is the sky blue?
A. The sky reflects light from the oceans.
B. Oxygen atoms are blue.
C. Nitrogen atoms are blue.
D. Air molecules scatter blue light more than red light.
E. Air molecules absorb red light.
Why is the sky blue?
A. The sky reflects light from the oceans.
B. Oxygen atoms are blue.
C. Nitrogen atoms are blue.
D. Air molecules scatter blue light more than red light.
E. Air molecules absorb red light.
Why the Sky Is Blue
• Atmosphere scatters
blue light from the Sun,
making it appear to
come from different
directions.
• Sunsets are red
because less of the red
light from the Sun is
scattered.
What Have We Learned? (1 of 7)
• Why is Earth geologically active?
– Earth retains plenty of internal heat because it is large
for a terrestrial planet.
– That heat drives geological activity, keeping the core
molten and driving geological activity.
– The circulation of molten metal in the core generates
Earth's magnetic field.
• What geological processes shape Earth's surface?
– Impact cratering, volcanism, tectonics, and erosion
• How does Earth's atmosphere affect the planet?
– Erosion
– Protection from radiation
– Greenhouse effect
7.2 Mercury and the Moon: Geologically
Dead
Our goals for learning:
• Was there ever geological activity on the Moon or
Mercury?
Was There Ever Geological Activity on
the Moon or Mercury?
Moon (2 of 2)
• Some volcanic activity 3 billion years ago must have

flooded lunar craters, creating lunar maria.
• The Moon is now geologically dead.
Cratering of Mercury (1 of 2)
• Mercury has a mixture of
heavily cratered and smooth
regions like the Moon.
• The smooth regions are likely
ancient lava flows.
Cratering of Mercury (2 of 2)
The Caloris Basin is the largest Region opposite the Caloris Basin is
impact crater on Mercury. jumbled from seismic energy of impact.
Tectonics on Mercury
• Long cliffs indicate that
Mercury shrank early
in its history.
Recent Geology on Mercury
• Lighter areas (color
enhanced) are
thought to be
“hollows” formed as
easily vaporized
minerals escape.
• Was there ever geological activity on the Moon or
Mercury?
– Early cratering on the Moon and Mercury is still
present, indicating that activity ceased long ago.
– Lunar maria resulted from early volcanism.
– Tectonic features on Mercury indicate early shrinkage.
7.3 Mars: A Victim of Planetary Freeze-
Drying
• What geological features tell us that water once flowed on
Mars?
• Why did Mars change?
Mars Versus Earth
• 50% Earth's radius, 10% Earth's mass
• 1.5 AU from the Sun
• Axis tilt about the same as Earth
• Similar rotation period
• Thin atmosphere: little greenhouse
• Main difference: Mars is Smaller
Seasons on Mars
• Seasons on Mars are more extreme in the southern

hemisphere because of its elliptical orbit.
Storms on Mars
• Seasonal winds on Mars can drive huge dust storms.

What Geological Features Tell Us That
Water Once Flowed on Mars? (1 of 2)
What Geological Features Tell Us That
Water Once Flowed on Mars? (2 of 2)
The surface of Mars appears to have ancient riverbeds.

Martian Geology (1 of 7)
Volcanoes…as recent as 180 million years ago…

Past tectonic activity…

Martian Landing Sites
• 2004 Opportunity
rover provided strong
evidence for abundant
liquid water on Mars in
the distant past.
• The mineral hematite,
typically formed in a
salty water
environment.
Clumps of rounded
pebbles discovered by
the Curiosity rover
compared with similar
formations in Earth
streambeds
Curiosity also
found these
layered rocks,
characteristic of
sedimentation by
water.
Today, most water
lies frozen
underground.
The Mars
Reconnaissance
Orbiter has seen
exposed water ice
on Martian cliff
faces.
Why Did Mars Change?
Climate Change on Mars (1 of 3)
• Mars has not had widespread surface water for 3 billion years.
• The greenhouse effect probably kept the surface warmer before that.
• Somehow Mars lost most of its atmosphere.
• Magnetic field may have preserved early Martian atmosphere.

• Solar wind may have stripped atmosphere after field decreased
because of interior cooling.
• The Maven spacecraft is measuring the loss of Mars’

atmosphere today.
• What geological features tell us that water once flowed on
Mars?
– Dry riverbeds, eroded craters, and rock-strewn floodplains
all show that water once flowed on Mars.
– Mars today has ice, underground water ice, and perhaps
pockets of underground liquid water.
• Why did Mars change?
– Mars's atmosphere must have once been much thicker for
its greenhouse effect to allow liquid water on the surface.
– Somehow Mars lost most of its atmosphere, perhaps
because of a declining magnetic field.
7.4 Venus: A Hothouse World
• Is Venus geologically active?
• Why is Venus so hot?
Is Venus geologically active?
Cratering on Venus
• Impact craters, but

fewer than Moon,
Mercury, Mars
Volcanoes on Venus
• Many volcanoes
Tectonics on Venus
• Fractured and
contorted surface
indicates tectonic
stresses
Erosion on Venus
• Photos of rocks
taken by lander
show little erosion
Does Venus Have Plate Tectonics?
• Most of Earth's major geological features can be
attributed to plate tectonics, which gradually remakes
Earth's surface.
• Venus does not appear to have plate tectonics, but its
entire surface seems to have been “repaved” 750 million
years ago.
Why Is Venus So Hot? (1 of 2)
Why Is Venus So Hot? (2 of 2)
The greenhouse effect on Venus keeps its surface
temperature at
But why is the greenhouse effect on Venus so much

stronger than on Earth?
Atmosphere of Venus (1 of 2)
• Venus has a very
thick carbon dioxide
atmosphere with a
surface pressure 90
times that of Earth.
Greenhouse Effect on Venus
• Thick carbon dioxide
atmosphere
produces an
extremely strong
greenhouse effect.
• Earth escapes this
fate because most of
its carbon and water
are in rocks and
oceans.
Atmosphere of Venus (2 of 2)
• Reflective clouds
contain droplets of
sulfuric acid.
• The upper
atmosphere has fast
winds that remain
unexplained.
Runaway Greenhouse Effect
• The runaway greenhouse effect would
account for why Venus has so little
water.
What is the main reason Venus is hotter than Earth?
A. Venus is closer to the Sun than Earth.
B. Venus is more reflective than Earth.
C. Venus is less reflective than Earth.
D. The greenhouse effect is much stronger on Venus than
on Earth.
E. Human activity has led to declining temperatures on
Earth.
What is the main reason Venus is hotter than Earth?
A. Venus is closer to the Sun than Earth.
B. Venus is more reflective than Earth.
C. Venus is less reflective than Earth.
D. The greenhouse effect is much stronger on Venus
than on Earth.
E. Human activity has led to declining temperatures on
Earth.
• Is Venus geologically active?
– Its surface shows evidence of major volcanism and
tectonics during the past billion years.
– There is no evidence for erosion or plate tectonics.
• Why is Venus so hot?
– The runaway greenhouse effect made Venus too hot
for liquid oceans.
– All carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere, leading
to a huge greenhouse effect.
7.5 Earth as a Living Planet
• What unique features of Earth are important for life?
• How is human activity changing our planet?
• What makes a planet habitable?
What Unique Features of Earth Are
Important for Life? (1 of 4)
1. Surface liquid water
2. Atmospheric oxygen
3. Plate tectonics
4. Climate stability
1. Surface liquid water Earth's distance from the
Sun and moderate
greenhouse effect make
3. Plate tectonics liquid water possible.
1. Surface liquid water Photosynthesis (plant life)
is required to make high
concentrations of
3. Plate tectonics
which produces the protective
4. Climate stability layer of
1. Surface liquid water Plate tectonics is an
important step in the
carbon dioxide cycle.
3. Plate tectonics
Continental Motion (1 of 2)
• Motion of continents can be measured with G PS.

Continental Motion (2 of 2)
• Idea of continental
drift was inspired by
puzzle-like fit of
continents.
• Mantle material
erupts where
seafloor spreads.
Seafloor Recycling
• Seafloor is recycled through a process known as

subduction.
Plate Motions
• Measurements of plate motions tell us past and future

layout of continents.
Carbon Dioxide Cycle (1 of 2)
1. Atmospheric
dissolves in rainwater.
2. Rain erodes minerals

that flow into the ocean.
3. Minerals combine with
carbon to make rocks on
ocean floor.
Carbon Dioxide Cycle (2 of 2)
4. Subduction carries
carbonate rocks down
into the mantle.
5. Rock melts in mantle

and outgases
back into atmosphere
through volcanoes.
Long-Term Climate Change
• Changes in Earth's axis tilt might lead to ice ages.

• Widespread ice tends to lower global temperatures by increasing
Earth's reflectivity.
• from outgassing will build up if oceans are frozen, ultimately
raising global temperatures again.
Important for Life?
1. Surface liquid water
3. Plate tectonics
The cycle acts like a
thermostat for Earth's
temperature.
These Unique Features Are Intertwined:
• Plate tectonics creates climate stability.
• Climate stability allows liquid water.
• Liquid water is necessary for life.
• Life is necessary for atmospheric oxygen.
How many other connections between these can you

think of?
How Is Human Activity Changing Our
Planet?
Dangers of Human Activity
• Human-made CFCs in the atmosphere destroy ozone,
reducing protection from UV radiation.
• Human activity is driving many other species to
extinction.
• Human use of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases
that cause global warming.
Global Warming
• Earth's average temperature has increased by
in the past 50 years.
• The concentration of is rising rapidly.
• An unchecked rise in greenhouse gases will eventually
lead to global warming.
C O sub 2 Concentration (1 of 2)
• Global temperatures have tracked concentration for the last

500,000 years.
• Antarctic air bubbles indicate the concentration is at its
current level in at least 500,000 years.
highest
C O sub 2 Concentration (2 of 2)
• Most of the increase has happened in the

last 50 years!
Modeling of Climate Change
• Models of global warming that include human production

of greenhouse gases are a better match to the global
temperature rise.
Consequences of Climate Change
• Increases in temperature vary from place to place, and

the effects on weather patterns are quite complex.
What Makes a Planet Habitable? (1 of 2)
• Located at an optimal distance from the Sun for liquid

water to exist
What Makes a Planet Habitable? (2 of 2)
• Large enough for geological activity to release and retain

water and atmosphere
Planetary Destiny
Earth is habitable
because it is large
enough to remain
geologically active,
and it is at the right
distance from the Sun
so oceans could form.
• What unique features of Earth are important for life?
– Surface liquid water
– Atmospheric oxygen
– Plate tectonics
– Climate stability
• How is human activity changing our planet?
– Human activity is releasing carbon dioxide into
Earth's atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse
effect and producing global warming.
• What makes a planet habitable?
– Earth's distance from the Sun allows for liquid water
on Earth's surface.
– Earth's size allows it to retain an atmosphere and
enough internal heat to drive geological activity.
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The Essential Cosmic Perspective

• Applying what we have learned about Earth's interior to

• Smaller worlds cool off faster and harden earlier.

• Larger objects have a smaller ratio and cool more slowly.

Moving charged particles create magnetic fields.

• Convection of the mantle creates stresses in the crust

• The Colorado River

• Glaciers carved the

• Wind wears away

• Erosion can create

Earth's atmosphere absorbs light at most wavelengths.

• Some volcanic activity 3 billion years ago must have

• Seasons on Mars are more extreme in the southern

• Seasonal winds on Mars can drive huge dust storms.

The surface of Mars appears to have ancient riverbeds.

Volcanoes…as recent as 180 million years ago…

Past tectonic activity…

• Magnetic field may have preserved early Martian atmosphere.

• The Maven spacecraft is measuring the loss of Mars’

• Impact craters, but

But why is the greenhouse effect on Venus so much

• Motion of continents can be measured with G PS.

• Seafloor is recycled through a process known as

• Measurements of plate motions tell us past and future

2. Rain erodes minerals

5. Rock melts in mantle

• Changes in Earth's axis tilt might lead to ice ages.

How many other connections between these can you

• Global temperatures have tracked concentration for the last

• Most of the increase has happened in the

• Models of global warming that include human production

• Increases in temperature vary from place to place, and

• Located at an optimal distance from the Sun for liquid

• Large enough for geological activity to release and retain

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is

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