Immigration history of Australia

• The immigration history of Australia began with the

initial human migration to continent around 50,000
years ago when the ancestors of Australian
aborigines arrived on the continent via the islands of
Maritime Southeast Asia and New Guinea. From the
early 17th century on wards ,the continent
experienced the first coastal landings and exploration
by European explorers. Permanent European
settlement began in 1788 with the establishment of
a British penal colony in new south Wales. From
early federation in1901, Australia policy, which was
abolished after World War II, heralding the modern
era of multiculturalism in Australia.
Migration program
 Skilled occupation visas
• Australian working visas are most commonly
granted to highly skilled workers candidates
assessed again a points-based system, with pints
allocated for certain standards of education. these
visas are often sponsored by individual states,
which recruit workers according to specific needs.
Visas may also be granted to applications sponsored
by an Australian business. The most popular form of
sponsored working is the 457 visa set in place in
1996.
 Student visas
• The Australian Government actively
encourages foreign students to study in
Australia. There are a number of categories of
student visa, most of which require a
confirmed offer from an education
institutional.
 Family Visas
• Visas are often granted on the basis of family
ties in Australia. There are a number of different
types of Australian family visas, including
contributory parent visas and Spouse visas.
• Employment and family visas can often lead to
Australian citizenship ;however, this requires
the applicant to have lived in Australia for at
least four years with at least one year as a
permanent resident.
 Investor visas
• Foreign investors could invest the business or
fund in Australia to acquire the permanent
residential of Australia, after 4 years (including
the year which require the visa),they need to
take the exam and make a declaration in order
to be the citizen of Australia.
 An Indigenous Australian

• A new definition was proposed in the Constitutional

Section of the Department of Aboriginal Affairs' Report
on a Review of the Administration of the Working
Definition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders
(Canberra, 1981):
•  
• An Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is a person of
Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies
as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted
as such by the community in which he (she) lives.[7]
 Definitions from Aboriginal Australians
• Eve Fesl, a Gabi-Gabi woman, wrote in the
Aboriginal Law Bulletin describing how she and
possibly other Aboriginal people preferred to be
identified:
•  
• The word 'aborigine' refers to an indigenous
person of any country. If it is to be used to refer
to us as a specific group of people, it should be
spelt with a capital 'A', i.e., 'Aborigine'.[16]
• While the term 'indigenous' is being more commonly used
by Australian Government and non-Government
organisations to describe Aboriginal Australians, Lowitja
O'Donoghue, commenting on the prospect of possible
amendments to Australia's constitution, said:

• I really can't tell you of a time when 'indigenous' became

current, but I personally have an objection to it, and so do
many other Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. ...
This has just really crept up on us ... like thieves in the
night. ... We are very happy with our involvement with
indigenous people around the world, on the international
forum ... because they're our brothers and sisters. But we
do object to it being used here in Australia.[17]
• O'Donoghue said that the term indigenous
robbed the traditional owners of Australia of
an identity because some non-Aboriginal
people now wanted to refer to themselves as
indigenous because they were born there.[17]
 Definitions from academia
• Dean of Indigenous Research and Education at Charles Darwin University, Professor MaryAnn
Bin-Sallik, has lectured on the ways Aboriginal Australians have been categorised and labelled
over time. Her lecture offered a new perspective on the terms urban, traditional and of
Indigenous descent as used to define and categorise Aboriginal Australians:
•  
• Not only are these categories inappropriate, they serve to divide us. ... Government's
insistence on categorising us with modern words like 'urban', 'traditional' and 'of Aboriginal
descent' are really only replacing old terms 'half-caste' and 'full-blood' – based on our
colouring.[18]
•  
• She called for a replacement of this terminology by that of "Aborigine" or "Torres Strait
Islander" – "irrespective of hue".[18] It could be argued that the indigenous tribes of Papua
New Guinea and Western New Guinea (Indonesia) are more closely related to the Aboriginal
Australians than to any tribes found in Indonesia, however due to ongoing conflict in the
regions of West Papua, these tribes are being marginalized from their closest relations.[19]
[20]
 Origins
• Main articles: History of Indigenous Australians, Prehistory of Australia, and Early
human migrations § South Asia and Australia
• Scholars had disagreed whether their closest kin outside Australia were certain South
Asian groups or African groups. The latter would imply a migration pattern in which
their ancestors passed through South Asia to Australia without intermingling
genetically with other populations along the way.[21]
•  
• In a 2011 genetic study by Ramussen et al., researchers took a DNA sample from an
early 20th century lock of an Aboriginal person's hair with low European admixture.
They found that the ancestors of the Aboriginal population split off from the Eurasian
population between 62,000 and 75,000 BP, whereas the European and Asian
populations split only 25,000 to 38,000 years BP, indicating an extended period of
Aboriginal genetic isolation. These Aboriginal ancestors migrated into South Asia and
then into Australia, where they stayed, with the result that, outside of Africa, the
Aboriginal peoples have occupied the same territory continuously longer than any
other human populations. These findings suggest that modern Aboriginal peoples are
the direct descendants of migrants who left Africa up to 75,000 years ago.[22][23]
• This finding is compatible with earlier archaeological finds of human remains near Lake Mungo that date to
approximately 40,000 years ago.
•  
• The same genetic study of 2011 found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some of the genes associated with
the Denisovan (a species of human related to but distinct from Neanderthals) peoples of Asia; the study suggests
that there is an increase in allele sharing between the Denisovans and the Aboriginal Australians genome
compared to other Eurasians and Africans. Examining DNA from a finger bone excavated in Siberia, researchers
concluded that the Denisovans migrated from Siberia to tropical parts of Asia and that they interbred with
modern humans in South-East Asia 44,000 years ago, before Australia separated from Papua New Guinea
approximately 11,700 years BP. They contributed DNA to Aboriginal Australians along with present-day New
Guineans and an indigenous tribe in the Philippines known as Mamanwa.[citation needed] This study makes
Aboriginal Australians one of the oldest living populations in the world and possibly the oldest outside of Africa,
confirming they may also have the oldest continuous culture on the planet.[24] The Papuans have more sharing
alleles than Aboriginal peoples.[clarification needed] The data suggest that modern and archaic humans interbred
in Asia before the migration to Australia.[25]
•  
• One 2017 paper in Nature evaluated artifacts in Kakadu and concluded "Human occupation began around 65,000
years ago".[26]
•  
• A 2013 study by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology found that there was a migration of genes
from India to Australia around 2000 BCE. The researchers had two theories for this: either some Indians had
contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those genes from India to Australian Aborigines, or
that a group of Indians migrated all the way from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals directly. Their
research also shows that these new arrivals came at a time when dingoes first appeared in the fossil record, and
when Aboriginal peoples first used microliths in hunting. In addition, they arrived just as one of the Aboriginal
language groups was undergoing a rapid expansion.[27][28]
•  
• In a 2001 study, blood samples were collected from some Warlpiri members of the Northern
Territory to study the genetic makeup of the Warlpiri Tribe of Aboriginal Australians, who are not
representative of all Aboriginal Tribes in Australia. The study concluded that the Warlpiri are
descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups,
although greatly diminished. The Warlpiri DNA also lacks certain information found in modern Asian
genomes, and carries information not found in other genomes, reinforcing the idea of ancient
Aboriginal isolation.[29]
•  
• Aboriginal Australians are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of Papua New
Guinea, and more distantly related to groups from East India. They are quite distinct from the
indigenous populations of Borneo and Malaysia, sharing relatively little genomic information as
compared to the groups from Papua New Guinea and India. This indicates that Australia was
isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia, and remained untouched by migrations and
population expansions into that area.[29]
•  
• The Australian Aborigines are genetically evolved to stand a wide range of environmental
temperatures. They were observed to have been able to sleep naked on the ground at night in
below freezing conditions in desert conditions where the temperatures easily rose to above 40
degrees Celsius during the day. By the same token, Tasmanian Aborigines would sleep in snow drifts
with nothing on apart from an animal skin. According to the April 2017 edition of the National
Geographic magazine, it is believed that this ability of Australian Aborigines is due to a beneficial
mutation in the genes which regulates hormones that control body temperature.[30]
•  
 Health
• Main article: Indigenous health in Australia
• Aboriginal Australians have disproportionately high rates[31] of severe physical disability, as
much as three times that of non-Aboriginal Australians, possibly due to higher rates of chronic
diseases such as diabetes and kidney disease. In a study comparing Aboriginal Australians to
non-Aboriginal Australians, obesity and smoking rates were higher among Aboriginals, which
are contributing factors or causes of serious health issues. The study also showed that
Aboriginal Australians were more likely to self-report their health as "excellent/very good" in
spite of extant severe physical limitations.
•  
• An article on 20 January 2017 in The Lancet describes the suicide rate among Aboriginal
Australians as a "catastrophic crisis":
•  
• In 2015, more than 150 [Aborigines] died by suicide, the highest figure ever recorded nationally
and double the rate of [non-Aborigines], according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Additionally, [Aboriginal] children make up one in three child suicides despite making up a
minuscule percentage of the population. Moreover, in parts of the country such as Kimberley,
WA, suicide rates among [Aborigines] are among the highest in the world.
• The report advocates Aboriginal-led national response to the crisis, asserting that suicide prevention programmes have
failed this segment of the population.[32] The ex-prisoner population of Australian Aboriginals is particularly at risk of
committing suicide; organisations such as Ngalla Maya have been set up to offer assistance.[33]
•  
• One study reports that Aboriginal Australians are significantly affected by infectious diseases, particularly in rural areas.
[34] These diseases include strongyloidiasis, hookworm caused by Ancylostoma duodenale, scabies, and streptococcal
infections. Because poverty is also prevalent in Aboriginal populations, the need for medical assistance is even greater in
many Aboriginal Australian communities. The researchers suggested the use of mass drug administration (MDA) as a
method of combating the diseases found commonly among Aboriginal peoples, while also highlighting the importance of
"sanitation, access to clean water, good food, integrated vector control and management, childhood immunizations, and
personal and family hygiene".[34]
•  
• Another study examining the psychosocial functioning of high-risk-exposed and low-risk-exposed Aboriginal Australians
aged 12–17 found that in high-risk youths, personal well-being was protected by a sense of solidarity and common low
socioeconomic status. However, in low-risk youths, perceptions of racism caused poor psychosocial functioning. The
researchers suggested that factors such as racism, discrimination and alienation contributed to physiological health risks in
ethnic minority families. The study also mentioned the effect of poverty on Aboriginal populations: higher morbidity and
mortality rates.[35]
•  
• Aboriginal Australians suffer from high rates of heart disease. Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death
worldwide and among Aboriginal Australians. Aboriginal people develop atrial fibrillation, a condition that sharply
increases the risk of stroke, much earlier than non-Aboriginal Australians on average. The life expectancy for Aboriginal
Australians is 10 years lower than non-Aboriginal Australians. Technologies such as the Wireless ambulatory ECG are being
developed to screen at-risk individuals, particularly rural Australians, for atrial fibrillation.[36]
•  
• The incidence rate of cancer was lower in Aboriginal Australians than non-Aboriginal Australians in 2005–2009.[37]
However, some cancers, including lung cancer and liver cancer, were significantly more common in Aboriginal people. The
overall mortality rate of Aboriginal Australians due to cancer was 1.3 times higher than non-Aboriginals in 2013. This may
be because they are less likely to receive the necessary treatments in time, or because the cancers that they tend to
develop are often more lethal than other cancers.
•  
 Tobacco usage
• According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, a large
number of Aboriginal Australians use tobacco, perhaps
41% of people aged 15 and up.[38] This number has
declined in recent years, but remains relatively high. The
smoking rate is roughly equal for men and women across
all age groups, but the smoking rate is much higher in
rural than in urban areas. The prevalence of smoking
exacerbates existing health problems such as
cardiovascular diseases and cancer. The Australian
government has encouraged its citizens, both Aboriginal
and non-Aboriginal, to stop smoking or to not start.
Alcohol usage