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 A capacitor is a passive element designed to store

energy in its electric field. Besides resistors,
capacitors are the most common electrical
components.
 Capacitors are used extensively in electronics,
communications, computers, and power systems.
 For example, they are used in the tuning circuits
of radio receivers and as dynamic memory
elements in computer systems.

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 A capacitor consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
When a voltage source v is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig, the source
deposits a positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge −q on the other.
The capacitor is said to store the electric charge.
The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the
applied voltage v so that
Q = Cv,
Q= Charge, C = Capacitance and v = Voltage

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 Capacitance is the ratio of Charge per plate and
Voltage applied
C = Q / V ………. (1)
But it doesn’t depend on charge and voltage but
the physical dimension of the capacitor, so

Where A = Surface Area of each plate, d = Distance

between the plated and Є = Permittivity of free
space
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 Circuit symbols shows the fixed and variable
capacitors.

 To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the

capacitor, we take the derivative of both sides of
Eq. (1), since i = dq/dt
 Differentiating both sides of eq. (1) gives
i = Cdv/dt ……… (2)

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 The voltage-current relation of the capacitor can
be obtained by integrating both sides of Eq. (2).
We get

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 A capacitor is an open circuit to dc.
 The voltage on a capacitor cannot change
abruptly.

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 We know from resistive circuits that series-parallel
combination is a powerful tool for reducing circuits. This
technique can be extended to series parallel connections
of capacitors, which are sometimes encountered. We
desire to replace these capacitors by a single equivalent
capacitor Ceq

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 The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-
connected capacitors is the sum of the individual
capacitances.
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 +· · ·+CN

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 The equivalent capacitance of series connected
capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances

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 An inductor is a passive element designed to
store energy in its magnetic field. Inductors find
numerous applications in electronic and power
systems.
 They are used in power supplies, transformers,
radios, TVs, radars, and electric motors.
 An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

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 If current is allowed to pass through an inductor,
it is found that the voltage across the inductor is
directly proportional to the time rate of change of
the current. Using the passive sign convention,

 Inductance is the property whereby an inductor

exhibits opposition to the change of current
flowing through it, measured in henrys (H).

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 The inductance of an inductor depends on its
physical dimension and construction

 where N is the number of turns, l is the length, A

is the cross-sectional area, and μ is the
permeability of the core.
 The current-voltage relationship is obtained as

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 Integrating gives,

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 Note from Eq. that the voltage across an inductor
is zero when the current is constant.
 An inductor acts like a short circuit to dc.
 An important property of the inductor is its
opposition to the change in current flowing
through it.
 The current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously.

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The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the
sum of the individual inductances.

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The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.

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 Force response of RC circuit.

 Source free response of RC circuit.

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 When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied,
the voltage or current source can be modeled as a step
function, and the response is known as a step response.
 The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or
a current source.

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 Where v(0−) is the voltage across the capacitor just
before switching and v(0+) is its voltage immediately
after switching. Applying KCL, we have

 where v is the voltage across the capacitor. For t > 0

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 Integrating both sides and introducing the initial
conditions,

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 Taking the exponential of both sides

 Thus,

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 This is known as the complete response of the RC circuit to a
sudden application of a dc voltage source, assuming the capacitor
is initially charged. Assuming that Vs > V0, a plot of v(t) is shown
in Fig.

 If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set V0 = 0

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 This is the complete step response of the RC
circuit when the capacitor is initially uncharged.
The current through the capacitor is obtained
from

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Step response of an RC circuit with initially uncharged capacitor:
(a) voltage response, (b) current response.

“ The natural response or transient response is the circuit’s

temporary response that will die out with time “

“ The forced response or steady-state response is the

behavior of the circuit a long time after an external excitation
is applied “
The complete response of the circuit is the sum of the natural response
and the forced response. 35
 Let the response be the sum of the natural current
and the forced current,
 i = in + if

 We know that the natural response is always a decaying

exponential, that is,

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 The forced response is the value of the current a long
time after the switch is closed

 We now determine the constant A from the initial value of i. Let I0 be the
initial current through the inductor, which may come from a source other
than Vs . Since the current through the inductor cannot change
instantaneously,

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 Thus at t = 0,

 Submitting the value of A in I gives,

 This is the complete response of RL circuit

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 A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc
source is suddenly disconnected.
 The energy already stored in the capacitor is
released to the resistors

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 We assume to be the voltage v(t) across the
capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged,
we can assume that at time t = 0, the initial
voltage is
 With the corresponding value of the energy
stored as
 Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in
Figure

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 The natural response of a circuit refers to the
behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of
the circuit itself, with no external sources of
excitation.
 The time constant of a circuit is the time required
for the response to decay by a factor of 1/e or
36.8 percent of its initial value.

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 Consider the series connection of a resistor and
an inductor, as shown in Figure

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 In order to determine the circuit response, which
we will assume to be the current i(t) through the
inductor. Select the inductor current as the
response in order to take advantage of the idea
that the inductor current cannot change
instantaneously.
 At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an
initial current I0, or

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 Corresponding energy stored in inductor as

 Apply KVL in the loop as,

 But, So above equation becomes

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 Rearranging and integrating terms gives

 Taking the power of e we have

 This shows that the natural response of the RL circuit is an

exponential decay of the initial current

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The current response of source free RL circuit is

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 Voltage across the resistor can be find out as

 Power dissipated across the resistor as

 The energy absorbed by the resistor is

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 Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Figure.
The circuit is being excited by the energy initially
stored in the capacitor and inductor.
 The energy is represented by the initial capacitor
voltage V0 and initial inductor current I0. Thus,
at t = 0,

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 Applying KVL around the loop,

 To eliminate the integral, differentiate with

respect to t.

 This is a second-order differential equation and is

the reason for calling the RLC circuits in this
chapter second-order circuits.

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 To solve such a second-order differential equation
requires that we have two initial conditions, such as the
initial value of i and its first derivative or initial values
of some i and v.

 Let,

 Put the value of i in 2nd order differential equation

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 Above quadratic equation is called the
characteristics equation of 2nd order differential
equation.
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 Solving quadratic equation gives

 More simplified way to expressing the roots is

Where

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 The roots s1 and s2 are called natural
frequencies, measured in nepers per second
(Np/s), because they are associated with the
natural response of the circuit; ω0 is known as the
resonant frequency or strictly as the undamped
natural frequency, expressed in radians per
second (rad/s); and α is the neper frequency or
the damping factor, expressed in nepers per
second.
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 In terms of α and ω0, Eq. can be written as

 Therefore complete response will be

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