Course Name: Whitewares

Course No: GCE3225

Class Conducted By:

Md. Mintu Ali
Assistant Professor, Dept. of GCE, RUET
Rajshahi-6204
Email: min2.gce11ruet@gmail.com

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Low-Mass Kiln Furniture
Low-mass kiln furniture significantly reduces the “dead
load” of a kiln car. The ever-present possibility of a sudden
increase in the cost of energy became a reality at the
beginning of 2001, when natural gas prices spiked to almost
$10 per MMBTU (million BTU) for a short period of time.
This event sparked renewed interest in improving kiln
energy efficiency. As noted by Ralph Ruark in his “Kiln
Connection” column in the March 2001 issue of Ceramic
Industry, any reduction in the “dead load” (kiln furniture
and car mass) will reduce kiln fuel usage. A simple kiln
Low-mass kiln furniture significantly
energy analysis shows that both energy savings and a
reduces the “dead weight” of a kiln car.
significant return on investment can result from using low-
mass kiln furniture.
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Kiln Energy Analysis

In the ceramic industry, shuttle (periodic) and

tunnel (continuous) kilns are used in the vast
majority of firing applications. The overall energy
balance for a shuttle kiln is shown schematically in
Figure 1. As indicated, the energy input and gas
flows generally vary during the course of the firing
cycle (except for the soak time at peak
temperature). The fundamental objective is to
subject the kiln load to the required firing curve,
but only a fraction of the total energy input goes to
this use.
Figure 1. The energy balance of a shuttle kiln.

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The bulk of the energy input leaves a
shuttle kiln in the exhaust gas flow, which
consists of the products of combustion of
the fuel, the excess combustion air, and
the air infiltration (if any). Unless some
form of energy recovery (recuperation) is
employed, this energy is totally lost.
Additional energy is lost in re-heating the
kiln lining during each firing and by
convection and radiation from the
external surface of the kiln. Figure 1. The energy balance of a shuttle kiln.

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The overall energy balance for a tunnel kiln is shown schematically in Figure 2. This is a more or less
continuous process, with essentially constant energy input and gas flows for a given firing curve and
firing cycle (cold-to-cold) time. Again, energy is lost in the exhaust gases and from the kiln external
surfaces. However, because the process is continuous, it is possible to draft the kiln so that a portion of
the energy in the exhaust gas stream is used to heat the incoming load. Therefore, tunnel kilns are
generally more thermal-efficient than shuttle kilns.

Figure 2. The energy balance of a tunnel kiln.

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Kiln Thermal Efficiency
Kiln thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy delivered to the load (product plus
kiln furniture) to the total energy input (x 100). Using the sanitaryware industry as an example,
some typical values of kiln thermal efficiency are shown in Table 1. For a tunnel kiln, the
longer the firing cycle, the lower the kiln thermal efficiency. This is due primarily to the fact
that the kiln surface heat losses are essentially the same for a fixed firing curve, regardless of
the firing cycle time.

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As the cycle time increases (and the kiln throughput decreases), those losses represent a greater
portion of the total energy input. For sanitaryware applications, tunnel kiln thermal efficiencies are
generally in the range of 35 to 45%.As indicated above, shuttle kiln thermal efficiency is lower
because all of the energy in the exhaust gas is lost and because the kiln lining must be re-heated
during each cycle. For sanitaryware applications, shuttle kiln thermal efficiencies are in the range of
20 to 25%. Shuttle/periodic kiln thermal efficiency falls rapidly as peak firing temperature increases.
For example, a periodic kiln firing to 3000?F could have a thermal efficiency as low as 13 to 15%.

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Low-Mass Kiln Furniture
Low-mass kiln furniture is produced from several types of silicon carbide (SiC) refractory materials.
The important characteristics of those SiC refractories are summarized in Table 2, with the properties
of the traditional refractory, cordierite, shown for reference. The conventional nitride-bonded silicon
carbide is a cost-effective SiC alternative for plates and lavatory setters in the sanitaryware industry.
Plates and setters produced from the advanced nitride-bonded SiC will have minimum thickness and
mass, while beams extruded from the reaction-sintered, silicon-infiltrated SiC have exceptional load-
carrying capability up to the use limit of 1350?.

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The SiC refractories are 10 to 100 times stronger than cordierite and thus allow major reductions in
the thickness and/or cross section of kiln furniture components such as plates and beams. The
corresponding mass reduction translates directly into energy savings. In addition, the SiC refractories
have significantly better oxidation resistance and thermal shock resistance than cordierite. These
advantages result in longer life and reduced life-cycle cost. Although low-mass SiC kiln furniture has
a higher initial cost than cordierite, a thorough economical analysis typically indicates a rapid return
of that additional investment.

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An illustration of the reduction in kiln furniture mass via low-mass construction is shown in Figure 3.
In this example, for a shuttle kiln firing sanitaryware, the baseline carload with all-cordierite kiln
furniture consists of 43% product mass and 57% cordierite kiln furniture. As indicated, the alternative
low-mass construction with SiC plates and beams and cordierite posts results in a 33% reduction in
the total mass of the load. This means the ratio of product mass to kiln furniture mass (higher is
better) increases from approximately 1 to 1 for cordierite to 2 to 1 for low-mass construction.

Figure 3. Traditional vs. low-mass kiln furniture.

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Low-Mass Construction Economics
A typical traditional kiln furniture arrangement for a sanitaryware shuttle kiln, consisting of heavy
cordierite posts, is shown in the photo at right, while the low-mass version is shown in the opening
photo. The mass of the cordierite kiln furniture is approximately 7000 pounds per car, while the mass
of the alternative SiC furniture is approximately 3000 pounds per car. Since there are four cars in the
kiln during a firing, the reduction in “dead weight” is almost 16,000 pounds per firing. The economics
of this example are summarized in Table 3. 

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It should be noted that two important assumptions are made in calculating the gross energy consumption.
First, since energy is consumed only during the heat-up and soak portions of the firing curve, only that
portion of the curve is considered. Second, we need only consider the energy consumed by the heating of
the kiln furniture itself when estimating the energy savings for the low-mass design versus the traditional
design. This assumption is valid because, for the same firing curve, the gross energy consumed by the
product load, the heat storage and the surface heat losses will be the same regardless of the type of kiln
furniture. Regarding the specific efficiency of energy consumption (combustion efficiency), this is a
function of the process temperature and is computed incrementally and reflected in the gross energy
consumption values.

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As shown in Table 3, based on a natural gas price of $5 per MMBTU, the monthly fuel savings for low-
mass construction is approximately $10,000. With respect to the return on investment, two cases are
considered. The first case considers the time to return the difference in cost between the cordierite and
low-mass designs and would be applicable for a new kiln, when one or the other of the kiln furniture
systems is to be purchased. The second case considers the time to return the total investment in the low-
mass kiln furniture and would be applicable for a complete replacement of the cordierite kiln furniture in
an existing kiln.

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For this example, the time to return the additional investment in low-mass kiln furniture was
determined to be about six months, and the time to return the total investment was found to
be about 10 months. In the current economic climate, projects generally must show payback
times of 12 months or less to be given serious consideration, and the low-mass conversion in
this example certainly clears that hurdle.
Recent economic analyses of other shuttle kiln and tunnel kiln applications indicate similar
economics, with the investment in low-mass kiln furniture returned in less than one year. All
of these analyses have assumed fuel costs in the range of $4 to $6 per MMBTU. Clearly any
increase in fuel cost only makes the economics more attractive.

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Other Advantages
Low-mass kiln furniture can be justified based on energy savings
alone, but it also has the following additional advantages relative
to traditional cordierite kiln furniture:
Longer life and lower life-cycle cost
Plates remain flat longer (better product quality)
More open construction (better circulation and temperature
uniformity in the kiln)
Less air required for combustion and cooling (electrical energy
savings in blowers)
Possibility of increased kiln capacity due to reduction in “dead
load” (shorter firing cycle)

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 Selecting the right kiln shelves for your kiln use and application is important. Selecting
the wrong shelves can be more expensive than you need or cutting corners can end up
with ruined shelves after only few firings. When selecting shelves you will have three
important choices:
a) the material from which the kiln shelves are made,
b) the thickness of the shelf,
c) half size or full size shelves.

To select the right kiln shelves you need to take into account your kiln type and style,
firing temperature, firing type (e.g., oxidation, reduction, raku), glazing style used,
firing frequency, ware weight and your strength. Once kiln shelves are selected and
used, regular maintenance is required (kiln wash and reversing shelves).

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Kiln Shelves Types
1) Cordierite Kiln Shelves * are made of Magnesium Aluminum Silicate which has very
low thermal expansion and low thermal conductivity. Cordierite can withstand fast heating or cooling
and is used when thermal shock is a concern traditionally used in top loading electric kilns. Cordierite
kiln shelves are more susceptible to warping at higher temperatures with maximum firing temperature is
cone 8. Shelves used up to cone 6 should be at least ¾” thick, and those used to a maximum of cone 10
should be at least 1” thick which makes them heavy. Cordierite has 13-25% porosity rate which will be a
problem with glaze dripping (the glaze can easily penetrate the surface and melt into the shelf). Kiln
wash should therefore be used to protect the surface. Cordierite kiln shelves are not recommended for
salt or wood firings.

* Cordierite, a naturally occurring mineral, composed of approximately 33% Alumina and 60% silica
with small amounts of other minerals dry pressing under high pressure.

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2) High Alumina Kiln Shelves ** are similar to Cordierite shelves but with higher
percentage of alumina increasing the shelves' temperature rating to cone 11. They can carry
heavier load and are less susceptible to warping but still require flipping / rotating to avoid
sagging. High Alumina shelves are more dense compared to Cordierite and therefore more
resistant to glaze drips but they still porous and require kiln wash and are not
recommended for Salt, Raku or Wood firings. High-Alumina shelves are best used in
electric or gas kilns.
** High Alumina (Aluminum Oxide) ceramic products are among the strongest and hardest
of all ceramic materials second only to diamond. They have a high dielectric strength with
excellent electrical resistance attributes. Alumina ceramics has high thermal conductivity
and high resistance to chemical and corrosion.

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3) Silicon Carbide Kiln Shelves are thin, lightweight
made from an advanced Nitride-bonded Silicon Carbide
composition, stronger and weigh half or less compared with
a conventional 1” thick Cordierite kiln shelves. They do not
sag or warp after many firings under heavy loads and
suitable for temperatures up to 2600°F and a great choice for
Gas, Soda and firing kilns. They are about twice the cost of
Cordierite or High Alumina kiln shelves cost.

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4) Nitride Bonded Silicon Carbide Shelves are thinner with very low mass and
high strength substantially reducing thermal mass resulting in reduced energy costs.
These shelves will not sag and you may never have to rotate them. ½" thickness will
be sufficient to cone 11. Glaze drips and ware will release easily from shelves without
the need for kiln wash with the exception of soda firing where an alumina based kiln
wash is recommended.
Cracks may occur in thin nitride bonded kiln shelves due to heat differences across
the shelf caused by heating or cooling too quickly. It is not recommended to use
nitride-bonded silicon carbide with electric kilns because they will cause a reduction
which may effect the glazes and clay body in an electric kiln. Silicon carbide does
conduct electricity and if an element touches the shelf a short or electrical shock risk
is high.

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Selecting the Right Kiln Shelves

1) Temperature Rating: If firing mid to high temperature (cone 4-10), kiln shelves that are too thin
will sag with time so make sure you purchase the right thickness. The shelves thickness options are
½", 5/8", ¾" and 1". The decision need to take into account the firing temperature and kiln shelve
length. For example, if your kiln shelf length is 30" and you fire to cone 6, 1" shelves thickness will
be a wise choice.

2) Kiln Shelves Size: If you have a large kiln fired to mid/high temperatures requiring a ¾" or 1"
shelves thickness, the shelves will be really heavy and difficult to carry in particular in a top loading
kiln. Half shelves might be a good choice for the above reason but will also provide you with the
flexibility to more efficiently fill every space in the kiln with your ware. Make sure the kiln shelves
dimensions allow about 1" clearance between the shelve and kiln's walls for temperatures even
distribution.

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3) Your kiln atmosphere (reduction or oxidation)

4) Frequency of Firing will expedite shelf sagging if too thin or

wrong shelf type selected

5) Ware weight - heavy ware will expedite kiln shelves sagging if too
thin or wrong shelf type selected

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Kiln Shelves Storage

Kiln shelves should be stored standing up on their edges. Storing

them flat makes it more possible for them to break or cracks.
Keep shelve dry. If they do get wet (e.g., after applying kiln
wash), heat them slowly and soak for a few hours at 300° F.

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Kiln Wash
Kiln wash is a layer of material between your pots and kiln shelves protecting your kiln shelves
during glaze firing preventing glazes from sticking to your shelves. Unglazed pots can stick to the
kiln shelf if the clay body vitrifies. Kiln wash is made of silica sand, alumina hydrate and kaolin.
You can mix your own kiln wash or purchase.
Glaze comes in contact with the kiln shelf when something unexpected occurred (e.g., running
glaze, tipped over pot) during the glaze firing even if you wiped glaze off the bottom or used stilts.
If kiln wash was not used in the above possible scenarios, your pot will stick to the shelf and break
trying to remove it . You will have to grind the glaze off the shelf’s surface, remaining glaze soaked
into the shelves will continue to erode the kiln shelf.
We also recommend applying kiln wash to the brick on the bottom of the kiln to prevent from glaze
drip damaging the soft brick.
Warning: Stay away from electric kiln elements – kiln wash will corrode and reduce the elements
life expectancy.
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Applying Kiln Wash

After mixing the kiln wash with water to a consistency of "Half and Half" cream, apply 2
to 3 thin coats with a brush only on one side of the kiln shelf letting it completely dry
between each coat. Keep about ½" on the outer part of the kiln shelve kiln wash free of
kiln wash to avoid flaking dry kiln wash falling into the pots below later on. Applying kiln
wash thicker will causes more peeling and / or cracking.

If you are planning to rotate / flip your shelves over every few firing, you'll need to scrape
and grind all the kiln wash from the bottom side first. Failing to do so will cause kiln wash
particles to fall into the pots below and ruin the glaze effect.

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Grinding Off Kiln Wash Before Rotating Sides

After several firings, the kiln wash will become very thin, uneven
or covered with silica from the kiln atmosphere. At that point you
should grind off all of the kiln wash off the top side and apply kiln
wash to the opposite side. We, at Lakeside Pottery, use the
following tools:
Rubbing Silicone Carbide Brick with Handle used for small
accidents to scrape off glaze drips and remnants of stuck pot's
bottoms
4-Inch Diamond Turbo Grinding Cup Wheel Coarse Grit used
when glaze accidents and removal of kiln wash is required before
flipping a kiln shelf.
4-1/2" Makita Angle Grinder – always use eye protection and
dust mask or a respirator even if done outdoors.

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