LESSON I

ENERGY AND CHEMISTRY

Energy plays a central role in science and also in
economic development and societal advancement.
Many of the applications of chemistry that are
important in your life would be likely to involve
energy and energy transformation. The burning of
fuels as an application of chemical combustion,
all the batteries that you depend on to power
portable electrical devices are based on chemical
reactions.
ENERGY – is the capacity or the ablity to do
work

FORMS OF ENERGY

Most of the energy we encounter can be placed

into two broad categories depending on whether
the energy is available but not being used or is
actually in use.
1. POTENTIAL ENERGY – is associated with energy
that is available because of position or composition

For example, a weight suspended above the ground has

energy available because its position and the attraction
of gravity for the weight. Water stored behind a dam, a
compressed spring, and a stretched rubber band all have
potential energy. The chemical energy stored in the
compounds of a tree log is also classified as potential
energy.
2. KINETIC ENERGY – is the energy produced by motion.

Examples: A moving baseball, a speeding train, water flowing

down a spillway from a dam; When a roller coaster heads the
first hill, it transforms potential energy into kinetic energy.

The equation below provides a mathematical definition for the

kinetic energy of an object in terms of its mass(m) and
velocity(v).

Kinetic energy = 1/2mv2

FORMS OF ENERGY:

- INTERNAL ENERGY – The combined kinetic and potential

energies of the atoms and molecules that make up a substance or
object.
- CHEMICAL ENERGY – potential energy stored in chemical
bonds, which can be released through an exothermic reaction.
- RADIANT ENERGY – is associated with light or
electromagnetic radiation
- MECHANICAL ENERGY – is associated with the
movement of macroscopic objects.
- THERMAL ENERGY – arises from the temperature of an
object. We can associate thermal energy with the molecular level
motion of atoms and molecules.
- ELECTRICAL ENERGY – results from moving
charge usually electrons in a metal.
- NUCLEAR ENERGY – which can be released in
nuclear fusion and fission processes, is a form of
potential energy associated with the arrangement of
protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei.
HEAT AND WORK

Although we can use a wide variety of classifications for types

of energy, all energy flow is either heat or work. Heat is the
flow of energy between two objects, from the warmer one to the
cooler one, because of a difference in their temperatures. Thus if
we are speaking carefully, heat is a process and not a quantity. In
a strictly scientific sense, a furnace does not produce heat but
rather a body of warm air or hot water that has higher
temperature than the cool air in a room. What energies from the
vent on the floor is not “heat” but warm air.
WORK is the second form of energy transfer. Work is
the transfer of energy accompanied by a force moving a
mass some distance against resistance. Lifting a set of
roller coaster cars up a hill against the pull of gravity is
an example of work.

W=Fxd
=N.M
= kg.m/sec2xm
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (“FIRST
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS”)

- states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but

only be transformed from one form to another.
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC CHANGES

Chemical or physical changes may be accompanied by either the

release or the absorption of heat energy. When a change releases
heat, it is said to be exothermic. When a change absorbs heat, it
is said to be endothermic. Combustion (burning) is a common
example of exothermic chemical reaction. Melting ice is a
physical change but is also an endothermic process. That is, to
melt ice cubes, we supply heat by taking a tray of cubes out of
the freezer and letting it sit in the warmer room. Boiling water is
another example of endothermic process. When water absorbs
enough heat from the stove, it boils.
ENERGY MEASUREMENT AND SPECIFIC HEAT

Limits of hear energy are based on the specific heat of water. A

calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of, gram of water or degree Celsius.

1cal = 4.184 joule(J)

The definition of the calorie provides us with the specific heat of

water in joules:

1.000cal/g.°c
The formulas used to calculate the specific heat is specific heat
= amount of heat energy (J or cal)/Mass(g)x△T (°c)

Specific heat is a measure of the amount of heat in calories or

joules (or Kcal or KJ) that will raise the temperature of gram of
the substance, degree Celsius.
Example Problem 1. (Determining Specific heat)

It takes 628J to raise the temperature of a 125g quantity of silver

from 25.00°C to 32.14°C. What is the specific heat of silver in
joules?

Procedure:
Determine a specific heat from the heat required to change a
given mass and a given temperature change.

a.) Calculate the actual temperature change [△T=T(final) –

T(initial)]
b.) The specific heat is calculated by substituting the appropriate
quantities in the formula.

△T=32.14°C – 25.00°C = 7.14°C

Specific heat = = 0.704

What would this value be in units of cal/g.c?

Using the relationship that

1cal = 4.184J, then

0.704x=
THE PRINCIPLE OF HEAT EXCHANGE

States that heat lost equals heat gained, assuming no heat is lost
to the surroundings, Heat exchange is a practical example of the
conservation of energy. The application of the principle of heat
exchange can also be used to measure the specific heat of a
substance. When two substance at different temperatures are
mixed, the hotter the item will lose heat energy and the cooler
one will gain heat energy. Thus, the temperature of the hotter
item comes down as the temperature of the other increases.
Eventually the two substances come to the same temperature,
which is somewhere between the two original temperature.
Example: Determining a Specific Heat by Heat Exchange

A 440 – g quantity of a certain metal is heated to 100.0°C. it is

immediately thrust into 258g of water that is initially at 25.0°C. The
temperature of the metal water mixture eventually settles at 36.5°C. What
is the metal? (Refer to table of specific heats)

Procedure:

To establish its specific heat we need the metal’s mass, temperature

change, and the heat released by cooling to cause the change. The heat
released by the metal is the same as the heat gained by the water
(a.) The heat gained by the water is given by the equation

Heat gained - Δ°C(water) x mass(g water) x specific heat (water) Δ°C =

T(final) – T(initial)

(b.) The heat gained by the water is equal to the heat lost by the metal.
Heat lost is assigned a negative sign by convention. The heat lost by the
metal is Heat lost = -Δ°C(metal x mass(g metal) x specific heat(metal)

(c.) Set the heat gained by the water equal to the heat lost by the metal.
Solve for the specific heat of the metal

Heal lost = heat gained

= Δ°C (water) x mass (water) x specific heat (water)

= -Δ°C (metal) x mass (metal) x specific heat of metal
SOLUTION:

Substituting all of the given values we have

-(25.0 – 36.5)°C x 258g x 4.184J/°C.g = -(100-36.5) °C

x 440g x specific heat (metal)

Solving for specific heat (metal),

Specific heat (metal) =

ANALYSIS
What is the metal? Matching the calculated value with those in
table 1.1 we find that the metal is iron.

Table 1.1 Specific Heats

SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC HEAT (cal/g.°C) SPECIFIC HEAT (J/g°C)

Water 1.000 4.185

Ice 0.492 2.06

Aluminum (Al) 0.214 0.895

Gold (Au) 0.031 0.129

Copper (Cu) 0.092 0.385

Zinc (Zn) 0.093 0.388

Iron (Fe) 0.106 0.444

SYSTEMS AND SURROUNDINGS

The universe is made up to system and surroundings. When

energy is transferred, it is necessary to determine what is losing
in the energy and what is gaining it. The system is the part of
the universe, the chose portion of space that is under
consideration. The system usually includes the reactants and
products of a chemical reactions or a single material that
undergoes physical change like melting or freezing. The
surroundings is everything else in the universe around the
system. The surroundings usually includes the container that
holds the reactants a products, and the rest of the universe.
The system can be classified as open, closed or isolated. An open system
allows the flow of matter and energy across its boundaries. An example of
an open system is a bowl of soup. Not only can heat escape to the
surroundings as the soup cools, but some steam (water vapor) and
pleasant-smelling chemicals can escape from its surface. A closed system
does not allow matter to pass through the boundaries, but can pass through
them. An example of closed system is a sealed test tube that contains a hot
solution. The tube and the liquid inside it can give up energy (or heat) to
the surroundings but its mass will not change. An isolated system has no
interchange of matter or energy with its surroundings. This system is
impossible to construct because, no matter how many precautionary
measures are taken, energy always leaks across the boundary. But by very
careful thermal insulation, it is possible to approach the conditions of an
isolated system. This is what is aimed at in an efficient thermos flask or a
good calorimeter
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

One of the most important characteristics of energy is that it is conserved. The total
energy lost by the system is equal to the total energy absorbed by its surroundings.
Likewise, the total energy absorbed by the system is equal to the energy lost by the
surroundings. This is the law of conservation of energy or the first law of
thermodynamics.

The exact energy of any system cannot be determined but the change in the internal
energy when a system undergoes transformation from state 1 to state 2 can be determined.
The internal energy of a system refers to the sum of all possible forms of energy in the
system. For example, in a system consisting of pure ethanol, all of the following types of
energy are present- kinetic energy of the molecules in the system, gravitational potential
energy, electrostatic potential energy from the attraction of opposite dipoles and repulsion
between dipoles, rotational energy of the molecules, vibrational energy in the bonds of the
molecules, and a lot more.
There are two possible types of transformation that a system may undergo:

a. a physical change, a change in physical state (solid to liquid, liquid to

gas, etc.) that involves release or absorption of energy; and

b. a chemical change, a chemical reaction (in which the initial state is

represented by the reactants and the final state is represented by the
products) that is accompanied by a gain or loss of energy.

The change in energy, △E( read as ‘delta E’), is defined as the change in
the total energy of the system it transforms from one state to another.
The equation is written as:
△E = Efinal – Einitial

For a chemical reaction, the initial energy is the energy of the reactants and the final
energy is that of the products. If △E is positive, it means that the system has
absorbed energy from the surroundings. If △E is negative, it means that the
system has released or given up energy to the surroundings.

Energy can be exchanged between a system and its surroundings in the form of either heat
or work. Therefore, the first law of thermodynamics is mathematically expressed as:
△E = q + w
Where △E is the total change in the internal energy, q is the heat exchange between
systems and surroundings, and w is the work exchange between system and surroundings.
Heat absorbed by the system and work done on the system are assigned a positive sign
(+). On the other hand, heat released by the system and work done by the system is
assigned a negative sign (-).
Sample Problem 1.
When a system gives off 100J of heat and the surroundings does 50J of
work on the systems, what is the change in internal energy of the system
△E?

Heat, q(+) heat, q(-)

SYSTEM SYSTEM

Work, w(+) work, w(-)

Given: q = -100J
w = +50J
Find: △E
Solution: △E= q + w = -100J + (+50J) = +50J
HEAT CAPACITY
The heat transferred by the system to the surroundings during
a chemical or physical change is measurable. The amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of an object by one degree
Celsius is the object’s heat capacity. Molar heat capacity
refers to the heat capacity of one mole of a substance, with
specific heat is the heat capacity of one gram of a substance.
The heat gained or lost by the material is the product of the heat capacity
of the material and the temperature change.

The equation is given as:

Q= c△t where: q = heat gained or lost

C = heat capacity
△t= temperature change (t2 – t1)

The heat capacity, c of an object is the product of mass of the object and its
specific heat. Thus. The amount of heat gained or lost by the system can be
calculated from its △t if the mass and specific heat of the substance are
known
The equation is expressed as:
q = m(specific heat) △t
The heat lost by the system equals the heat gained by the
surroundings, and vice versa.
Sample Problem 1
The heat capacity of a cup is 108J °C1. When the cup is filled with
hot coffee, the temperature of the cup increases from 24.3 °C to 71.8 °C.
How much heat does the cup gain?

Given: c = 108J °C-1

T1 = 24.3 °C
T2 = 71.8 °C

Find: q
Solution:

q = c△t
= 108J °C-1(71.8°C – 24.3°C)
= 5130J