Language and Society

Lecture 10, 11
(Sept 15, 26, 2022)

Multi/Bi- lingualism Diglossia,

Code switching/mixing
Multilingualism, Bilingualism, Diglossia
Bilingualism and Multilingualism


A common phenomena in several parts of the world

India is a very good case for this.

In a bi/multi lingual community individuals know several languages

It is common that they use language X at home, language Y in the
marketplace and language Z in the work place.

“I use Oriya in my home, English in my workplace, Hindi for

television viewing, Bengali to communicate with my domestic helper, a
variety of Hindi-Punjabi-Urdu in marketplaces in Delhi, Sanskrit for
my prayer and religious activities, and some conversational Kui with
the Konds for my research in their community. These languages fit in a
mutually complementary and non-competing relationship in my life.
(Mohanty
2006, 263)”
(Wardaugh pg 83)
Competence in different languages

Multilingualism involving balanced, native-like command of all the languages in

the repertoire is rather uncommon. Typically, multilinguals have varying degrees
of command of the different repertoires. The differences in competence in the
various
languages might range from command of a few lexical items, formulaic
expressions such as greetings, and rudimentary conversational skills all the way
to excellent command of the grammar and vocabulary and specialized register
and styles.
Sridhar (1996, 50)

(Wardaugh pg 84)
Bi/Multilingualism


On the basis of languages acquired

Mother tongue

First language

Second language

On the basis of language use

Primary

Secondary

Time Language
Diachronic First language L1
Second language L2
Synchronic Primary PL
Secondary SL
Does a bilingual individual have one or two
linguistic system(s)?
Co-ordinate and/or Compound Bilingualism
(Bell, pg 118)
Diglossia

A relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary

dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional
standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically
more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected
body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech
community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for
most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector
of the community for ordinary conversation.
(Ferguson 1959. p. 325)

Properties of a Diglossic situation


2 distinct varieties – one highly codified coexist.

Both belonging to the same language

Used in distinct domains – formal and the other for day to day
conversations

Stable

One learnt formally, the other naturally

Their use DOES NOT overlap
Diglossia
Situation High Variety (H) Low Variety (L)
Sermon in church or mosque H
Instructions to servants, waiters, L
etc.
Personal letter H
Speech in parliament, political H
speech
University lecture H
Conversation with family, friends, L
colleagues
News broadcast H
Radio ‘soap opera’ L
Newspaper editorial, news story H
Caption on political cartoon L
Poetry H
Folk literature L
Difference in H and L
<https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702>
H L

Functions Formal Ordinary/day to day

Prestige Enjoys prestige Is considered lower

Lierary heritage Sizable body of literature

Acquisition Formally in school Normally

Standardization Highly codified

Stability
Grammar H has richer grammatical Some of the grammatical
categories/inflectional categories of H may not be
systems present/far simpler
Lexicon Formal/technical domains
lexicon
Phonology
- https://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/Diglossia-An-Overview-of-the-
Arabic-Situation.pdf
Extended Diglossia
Fishman (1980)
Diglossia is ‘an enduring societal arrangement,’ extending at least
beyond a three-generation period, such that two varieties each have their
secure, phenomenologically legitimate, and widely implemented
functions. (Wardaugh, pg 94)

He extends the scope of ‘diglossia’ to two languages rather than the two
varieties of the same language

Gumperz
Goes with Fishman in extending the scope. He further introduces the term
polyglossia

H – L/H – L
(Y variety) (X variety)
Relationship between Diglossia and Bilingualism

Diglossia + Diglossia -

Bilingualism + Bilingualism Bilingualism

with diglossia without Diglossia

Bilingualism - Diglossia without No bilingualism,

bilingualism no diglossia

Fishman (1967: 30)

What happens when two languages coexist

Code switching


When more than one code is used.

When one switches the code depending on the situation


Metaphorical Code Switching
 Within the same situation code is switched depending on the topic


Situational code switching
 Where the code is switched depending on the situation


Conversational code switching (code mixing)
 Where a speaker switches codes within a single utterance/sentence without there being a situational
trigger for change or topic change.