Clinical Work-up/Referrals And Referring

Protocols /Patient Education On Non Communicable

Diseases And General Approach to Guidelines
 Globally
• Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) kill 38 million people each year.
• Almost three quarters of NCD deaths - 28 million - occur in low- and
middle-income countries.
• Cardiovascular diseases account for most NCD deaths, or 17.5
million people annually, followed by cancers (8.2 million),
respiratory diseases (4 million), and diabetes (1.5 million).
• These 4 groups of diseases account for 82% of all NCD deaths.

• Tobacco use, physical inactivity, the harmful use of alcohol and

unhealthy diets all increase the risk of dying from an NCD.
• More than nine million
of all deaths attributed
to noncommunicable
diseases (NCDs) occur
before the age of 60.

•Around the world,

NCDs affect women and
men almost equally.
• Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), also
known as chronic diseases.
• Long duration and generally slow progression.
• The 4 main types of NCDs are
cardiovascular diseases
cancers,
chronic respiratory diseases
diabetes.
Distribution of deaths by leading cause groups
(males and females, world, 2004)
Projected deaths by cause and income (2004 to 2030)

30

25
Deaths (millions)

20

15

10

0
2004 2015 2030 2004 2015 2030 2004 2015 2030
High income Middle income Low income
 Noncommunicable Diseases
Adult Overweight and Obesity in Arab Countries
 High income Cardiovascular diseases
Cancers
Other noncommunicable diseases
Western Pacific
Injuries
HIVAIDS
Americas
Other infectious and parasitic diseases
Maternal and nutritional conditions
Eastern Mediterranean

South East Asia

Europe

Africa

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Death rate per 1000 adults aged 15–59 years
 Noncommunicable Diseases
Burden of disease in disability adjusted life years
 Facts about NCD in China
Communicable, ma-
ternal, neonatial,
and nutritional dis-
orders; 列 1; 49; 6%

Injuries; 列
1; 80; 10%
Other NCDs;
CVD; 列 1;
列 1; 73; 9% 313; 38%

Chronic
Respiratory In total, NCDs accounted for
Diseases; Cancer; 列 1;
213; 26% 70.1 million deaths (85%),
列 1; 102;
12% 18.7% up from 1990*

Deaths from NCDs in

*Yang G, Wang Y, Zeng Y, etChina,
al. Rapid2010
health transition in China, 1990-2010: findings from the
Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 2013. 381(9882): 1987-2015. 15
Trends of Salt Intake in
adults
(g
/
d
) Salt
Soy
Sauce

数据来源： 1982 、 1992 、 2002 年营养调查（称重法）； 2010 年中国慢病行为危险因素监测（食物频率法）

Sources: China National nutrition survey 1982, 1992, 2002; National BRFSS 2010
 West Africa
• As low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) begin to
make gains in combating infectious disease and
malnutrition and garner the bene"ts of economic
development, they have become increasingly vulnerable
to the impact of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs).
NCDs such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer,
respiratory disease and diabetes are already the leading
causes of death in all LMIC except those in subSaharan
Africa. Projected data indicate that there will be a rapid
increase in NCDs over the next seven years, including in
sub-Saharan Africa.
• NCDs are largely preventable
by means of effective
interventions that tackle
shared risk factors, namely:
tobacco use, unhealthy diet,
physical inactivity and harmful
use of alcohol.

• NCDs are not only a

health problem but a
development
challenge as well.
• Health transition, whereby NCDs become the
dominant contributor to the burden of
disease, is principally due to a combination of
demographic and lifestyle changes that result
from socio-economic development.
Urbanisation, Industrialisation, And Globalisation

a diet rich in saturated fat, salt, and excess

calories.
decreased physical activity.

addictions like tobacco and alcohol,

augmentation of psychosocial stress.
• These diseases are preventable. Up to 80% of
heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes and
over a third of cancers could be prevented by
eliminating shared risk factors, mainly tobacco
use, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and the
harmful use of alcohol.
 Affects all age groups ( more in the elderly)
 Affect all regions
 Affects all income classes, (82% occurred in low- and middle-
income countries).
 Risk factors

• Modifiable behavioural risk factors

• Tobacco use, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet and the harmful use
of alcohol increase the risk of NCDs.
• Tobacco accounts for around 6 million deaths every year (including
from the effects of exposure to second-hand smoke), and is
projected to increase to 8 million by 2030.
• About 3.2 million deaths annually can be attributed to insufficient
physical activity.
• More than half of the 3.3 million annual deaths from harmful
drinking are from NCDs .
• In 2010, 1.7 million annual deaths from cardiovascular causes have
been attributed to excess salt/sodium intake.2)
 Metabolic/physiological risk factors

• These behaviours lead to four key

metabolic/physiological changes that increase the
risk of NCDs: raised blood pressure,
overweight/obesity, hyperglycemia (high blood
glucose levels) and hyperlipidemia (high levels of fat
in the blood).
• In terms of attributable deaths, the leading
metabolic risk factor globally is elevated blood
pressure(18%)
• overweight and obesity and raised blood glucose.
 Socioeconomic impacts of NCDs?

• NCDs threaten progress towards the UN Millennium Development Goals and post-2015
development agenda. Poverty is closely linked with NCDs. The rapid rise in NCDs is
predicted to impede poverty reduction initiatives in low-income countries, particularly
by increasing household costs associated with health care. Vulnerable and socially
disadvantaged people get sicker and die sooner than people of higher social positions,
especially because they are at greater risk of being exposed to harmful products, such
as tobacco or unhealthy food, and have limited access to health services.
• In low-resource settings, health-care costs for cardiovascular diseases, cancers, diabetes
or chronic lung diseases can quickly drain household resources, driving families into
poverty. The exorbitant costs of NCDs, including often lengthy and expensive treatment
and loss of breadwinners, are forcing millions of people into poverty annually, stifling
development.
• In many countries, harmful drinking and unhealthy diet and lifestyles occur both in
higher and lower income groups. However, high-income groups can access services and
products that protect them from the greatest risks while lower-income groups can often
not afford such products and services.
 Prevention and control of NCDs

• Primary prevention
A comprehensive approach is needed that requires all
sectors, including health, finance, foreign affairs,
education, agriculture, planning and others, to work
together to reduce the risks associated with NCDs, as
well as promote the interventions to prevent and
control them.
An important way to reduce NCDs is to focus on
lessening the risk factors associated with these
diseases.
 Structured Primary Health-care Approach
• Through a primary health-care approach to strengthen early
detection and timely treatment. These measures can be
implemented in various resource levels. The greatest impact can
be achieved by creating healthy public policies that promote NCD
prevention and control and reorienting health systems to address
the needs of people with such diseases.
• Lower-income countries generally have lower capacity for the
prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases.
• High-income countries are nearly 4 times more likely to have NCD
services covered by health insurance than low-income countries.
Countries with inadequate health insurance coverage are unlikely
to provide universal access to essential NCD interventions.
 WHO response

• Under the leadership of the WHO more than 190 countries agreed in 2011 on global
mechanisms to reduce the avoidable NCD burden including a Global action plan for the
prevention and control of NCDs 2013-2020. This plan aims to reduce the number of
premature deaths from NCDs by 25% by 2025 through nine voluntary global targets. The nine
targets focus in part by addressing factors such as tobacco use, harmful use of alcohol,
unhealthy diet and physical inactivity that increase people's risk of developing these diseases.
• The plan offers a menu of “best buy” or cost-effective, high-impact interventions for meeting
the nine voluntary global targets such as banning all forms of tobacco and alcohol advertising,
replacing trans fats with polyunsaturated fats, promoting and protecting breastfeeding, and
preventing cervical cancer through screening.
• In 2015, countries will begin to set national targets and measure progress on the 2010
baselines reported in the Global status report on noncommunicable diseases 2014. The UN
General Assembly will convene a third high-level meeting on NCDs in 2018 to take stock of
national progress in attaining the voluntary global targets by 2025.
 Cardiovascular diseases
• Cardiovascular disease is caused by disorders of the heart
and blood vessels, and includes coronary heart disease
(heart attacks), cerebrovascular disease (stroke), raised
blood pressure (hypertension), peripheral artery disease,
rheumatic heart disease, congenital heart disease and heart
failure.
• Although heart attacks and strokes are major killers in all
parts of the world, 80% of premature deaths from these
causes could be avoided by controlling the main risk factors:
tobacco, unhealthy diet and physical inactivity.

29
 Cardiovascular diseases:
Facts and figures

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD) causes more than half of all

deaths across the European Region.
• 80% of premature heart disease and stroke is
preventable.

30
 Cardiovascular diseases:
Contributing factors

A person’s genetic make-up

The foundations of adult health are laid in early life
Socioeconomic group
Mental health
Diet
Overweight and obesity
Inactivity
Tobacco
Alcohol
Diabetes
Globalization and urbanization

31
 Cardiovascular diseases:
Prevention

• Focusing on a combination of risk factors

for cardiovascular disease
• Implementing medical screening for
individuals at risk
• Providing effective and affordable
treatment to those who require it

32
 Cardiovascular diseases:
Prevention
It has been predicted that mortality from coronary heart disease (CHD) in
the United Kingdom could be halved by small changes in cardiovascular risk
factors: a 1% decrease in cholesterol in the population could lead to a 2–4%
CHD mortality reduction; a 1% reduction in smoking prevalence could lead
to 2000 fewer CHD deaths per year; and a 1% reduction in population
diastolic blood pressure could prevent around 1500 CHD deaths each year.

80% of the reduction in CHD mortality in Finland during the period of 1972–
1992 has been explained by a decline in the major risk factors. Similarly, in
Ireland, almost half (48.1%) of the reduction in CHD mortality rates during
1985–2000 among those aged 25–84 years has been attributed to favorable
trends in population risk factors. In both countries, the greatest benefits
appear to have come from reductions in mean cholesterol concentrations,
smoking prevalence and blood pressure levels.

33
 Cardiovascular diseases:
Treatment
• Effective measures are available for people at
high risk. For example, combination drug
therapy (such as aspirin, beta blocker, diuretic
and statin) can lead to a 75% reduction in
myocardial infarction (heart attack) among those
at high risk of having one.
• But many such interventions are not being
implemented, and about half of coronary
patients in the world still require more intensive
blood pressure management.
34
 Tobacco
Rising production and consumption in developing
countries
Smoking prevalence in Bangladesh (1995)
Clinical work-up/CVS
 Cancer
• Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and
spread of cells that arises from a change in
one single cell. The change may be started
by external agents and inherited genetic
factors and can affect almost any part of the
body. The transformation from a normal cell
into a tumour cell is a multistage process
where growths often invade surrounding
tissue and can metastasize to distant sites.

38
 Cancer: Interaction between a person’s genetic
factors and any of three categories of external
agents

• physical carcinogens, such as ultraviolet and ionizing

radiation or asbestos;
• chemical carcinogens, such as vinyl chloride, or
betnapthylamine (both rated by the International Agency
for Research into Cancer as carcinogenic), components of
tobacco smoke, aflatoxin (a food contaminant) and
arsenic (a drinking-water contaminant); and
• biological carcinogens, such as infections from certain
viruses, bacteria or parasites.
Most chemicals to which people are exposed in everyday life have not been
tested for their long-term impact on human health.

39
 Cancer:
the majority of cancer deaths

• Lung, breast, colorectal, stomach and liver cancers

• In high-income countries, the leading causes of
cancer deaths are lung cancer among men and
breast cancer among women.
• In low- and middle-income countries cancer levels
vary according to the prevailing underlying risks. In
sub-Saharan Africa, for example, cervical cancer is
the leading cause of cancer death among women.

40
 Cancer:
risk factors for cancer

• tobacco use
• unhealthy diet
• insufficient physical activity
• the harmful use of alcohol
• Infections (hepatitis B, hepatitis C (liver cancer), human
papillomavirus (HPV; cervical cancer), Helicobacter pylori
(stomach cancer)
• Radiation
• variety of environmental and occupational exposures of
varying importance

41
 Cancer:
policy

WHO’s approach to cancer has four pillars:

• prevention,
• early detection,
• screening,
• treatment
• palliative care.

42
 Cancer:
policy

• At least one third of the 10 million new cases of cancer

each year are preventable through reducing tobacco
and alcohol use, moderating diet and immunizing
against viral hepatitis B.
• Early detection and prompt treatment where resources
allow can reduce incidence by a further one third.
• Effective techniques are sufficiently well established to
permit comprehensive palliative care for the remaining
more advanced cases.

43
 Cancer:
national cancer control programme

• WHO has consolidated tools for countries in a framework

known as the national cancer control programme, which
focuses government attention and services on all facets of the
fight.
• A national cancer control programme is a public health
programme designed to reduce cancer incidence and mortality
and improve cancer patients’ quality of life, through the
systematic and equitable implementation of evidence-based
strategies for prevention, early detection, diagnosis, treatment
and palliation, making the best use of available resources.

44
 Chronic respiratory diseases:
Quick facts and figures
• 71% of all lung cancer deaths
• 42% of chronic respiratory disease worldwide.
• Of the six WHO regions, the highest overall prevalence for
smoking in 2008 was estimated to be the in the European
Region, at nearly 29%.

45
 Chronic respiratory diseases:
Quick facts and figures
• Survey data from 2002–2007 indicate that over half of all
children aged 13–15 years in many countries in the European
Region are exposed to second-hand tobacco smoke at home.
Second-hand smoke causes severe respiratory health
problems in children, such as asthma and reduced lung
function; and asthma is now the most common chronic
disease among children throughout the Region. 

46
 Chronic respiratory diseases:
Quick facts and figures
• According to the latest available data for 1997–2006, over
12% of infant deaths in the world are due to respiratory
diseases.
• Indoor air pollution from biological agents related to damp
and mould increases the risk of respiratory disease in
children and adults. Children are particularly susceptible to
the health effects of damp, which include respiratory
disorders such as irritation of the respiratory tract, allergies
and exacerbation of asthma. Damp is often associated with
poor housing and social conditions, poor indoor air quality
and inadequate housing hygiene.

47
 Chronic respiratory diseases:
Quick facts and figures
• Increasing evidence suggests that allergic sensitization,
which is the most common precursor to the development of
asthma, can already occur antenatally. Emphasis on the
health, nutrition and environment of the pregnant woman
and the unborn child are therefore essential.
• Ozone pollution causes breathing difficulties, triggers
asthma symptoms, causes lung and heart diseases, and is
associated with about 21 000 premature deaths per year in
25 countries in the WHO European Region.

48
 Chronic respiratory diseases:
Quick facts and figures
• Most countries in the world and the European Region have
introduced a wide range of comprehensive policies to reduce
and eliminate tobacco smoke. For example, the advertising
of cigarettes and the sale of tobacco products to minors have
been banned in more than 80% of the countries in the
Region. Smoking in restaurants and bars continues to be
regulated less strictly, however. Ireland, Turkey and the
United Kingdom are the first countries to make public places
100% smoke free.

49
 Diabetes

• Diabetes is a chronic disease that occurs

when the pancreas does not produce enough
insulin (a hormone that regulates blood
sugar) or alternatively, when the body
cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
The overall risk of dying among people with
diabetes is at least double the risk of their
peers without diabetes.
50
 Diabetes: Quick facts and figures

• About 347 million

people worldwide
have diabetes.

• There is an emerging
global epidemic of
diabetes that can be traced
back to rapid increases in
overweight, obesity and
physical inactivity.

51
 Diabetes: Quick facts and figures

• Diabetes is predicted
to become the
seventh leading cause
of death in the world
by the year 2030.

• Total deaths from diabetes

are projected to rise by more
than 50% in the next 10
years.

52
 Diabetes: Quick facts and figures

• 80% of diabetes
deaths occur in
low- and middle-
income countries.
• In developed countries
most people with
diabetes are above the
age of retirement,
whereas in developing
countries those most
frequently affected are
aged between 35 and 64.

53
 Diabetes: Health implications

Elevated blood sugar is a common effect of uncontrolled

diabetes, and over time can damage the heart, blood
vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves.
Some health complications from diabetes include:
• Diabetic retinopathy
• Diabetic neuropathy
• Diabetes is among the leading causes of kidney failure; 10-
20% of people with diabetes die of kidney failure.
• Diabetes increases the risk of heart disease and stroke; 50%
of people with diabetes die of cardiovascular disease
(primarily heart disease and stroke).

54
 Diabetes: Prevention
Without urgent action, diabetes-related deaths will increase
by more than 50% in the next 10 years. To help prevent type
2 diabetes and its complications, people should:
• Achieve and maintain healthy body weight.
• Be physically active - at least 30 minutes of regular,
moderate-intensity activity on most days.
• Early diagnosis can be accomplished through relatively
inexpensive blood testing.
• Treatment of diabetes involves lowering blood sugar and the
levels of other known risk factors that damage blood vessels.
• Tobacco cessation is also important to avoid complications.

55
 Diabetes: Control
• People with type 1 diabetes require insulin; people with type
2 diabetes can be treated with oral medication, but may also
require insulin.
• Blood pressure control
• Foot care
Other cost saving interventions include:
• Screening and treatment for retinopathy (which causes
blindness);
• Blood lipid control (to regulate cholesterol levels);
• Screening for early signs of diabetes-related kidney disease
and treatment.
These measures should be supported by a healthy diet,
regular physical activity, maintaining a normal body weight
and avoiding tobacco use.

56
 Obesity
• Obesity is one of the greatest public health challenges of the
21st century. Its prevalence has tripled in many countries of
the WHO European Region since the 1980s, and the numbers
of those affected continue to rise at an alarming rate,
particularly among children.
• In addition to causing various physical disabilities and
psychological problems, excess weight drastically increases a
person’s risk of developing a number of noncommunicable
diseases (NCDs), including cardiovascular disease, cancer
and diabetes.
• The risk of developing more than one of these diseases (co-
morbidity) also increases with increasing body weight.

57
 Obesity
Overweight and obesity
are defined as "abnormal
or excessive fat
accumulation that may
impair health“

Body mass index (BMI) – the weight in

kilograms divided by the square of the
height in meters (kg/m2) – is a
commonly used index to classify
overweight and obesity in adults.
WHO defines overweight as a BMI
equal to or more than 25, and obesity
as a BMI equal to or more than 30.

58
 Obesity: Quick facts and figures
More than 1.4 billion adults
were overweight in 2008,
and more than half a billion
obese

In 2008, more than 1.4 billion adults

were overweight and more than half a
billion were obese. At least 2.8 million
people each year die as a result of
being overweight or obese. The
prevalence of obesity has nearly
doubled between 1980 and 2008. Once
associated with high-income countries,
obesity is now also prevalent in low-
and middle-income countries.

59
Obesity: Quick facts and figures
Globally, over 40 million
preschool children were
overweight in 2008

Childhood obesity is one of the most

serious public health challenges of
the 21st century. Overweight
children are likely to become obese
adults. They are more likely than
non-overweight children to develop
diabetes and cardiovascular diseases
at a younger age, which in turn are
associated with a higher chance of
premature death and disability.

60
Obesity: Quick facts and figures
Overweight and obesity are linked
to more deaths worldwide than
underweight

65% of the world's population live

in a country where overweight
and obesity kills more people
than underweight. This includes
all high-income and middle-
income countries. Globally, 44%
of diabetes, 23% of ischaemic
heart disease and 7–41% of
certain cancers are attributable to
overweight and obesity.

61
 Obesity: Quick facts and figures
Supportive environments and
communities are fundamental in
shaping people’s choices and
preventing obesity

Individual responsibility can only

have its full effect where people
have access to a healthy lifestyle,
and are supported to make healthy
choices.
WHO mobilizes the range of
stakeholders who have vital roles to
play in shaping healthy
environments and making healthier
diet options affordable and easily
accessible.
62
 Obesity: Quick facts and figures
• The global obesity epidemic
requires a population-based
multisectoral, multi-disciplinary,
and culturally relevant
approach

• WHO's Action Plan for the

Global Strategy for the
Prevention and Control of
Noncommunicable Diseases
provides a roadmap to establish
and strengthen initiatives for
the surveillance, prevention and
management of
noncommunicable diseases,
including obesity.

63
 Noncommunicable diseases:
Current status and trends in risk factors
The prevalence of these risk factors varied between country
income groups, with the pattern of variation differing between risk
factors and with gender. High-, middle- and low-income countries
had differing risk profiles.
Several risk factors have the highest prevalence in high-income
countries. These include:
1. physical inactivity among women,
2. total fat consumption,
3. raised total cholesterol.
 Some risk factors have become more common in middle-income
countries. These include:
1. tobacco use among men,
2. overweight and obesity.
64
 Noncommunicable diseases:
parameters for estimation of behavioural and
metabolic risk factors
• current daily tobacco smoking: the percentage of the
population aged 15 or older who smoke tobacco on a daily
basis.
• physical inactivity: the percentage of the population aged 15
or older engaging in less than 30 minutes of moderate
activity per week or less than 20 minutes of vigorous activity
three times per week, or the equivalent.
• raised blood pressure: the percentage of the population
aged 25 or older having systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg
and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg or on medication
to lower blood pressure.
65
 Noncommunicable diseases:
parameters for estimation of behavioural and metabolic risk factors

• raised blood glucose: the percentage of the population aged

25 or older having a fasting plasma glucose value ≥ 7.0
mmol/L (126 mg/dl) or on medication for raised blood
glucose.
• overweight: the percentage of the population aged 20 or
older having a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 25 kg/m2.
• obesity: the percentage of the population aged 20 or older
having a body mass index (BMI) ≥30 kg/m2.
• raised cholesterol: the percentage of the population aged 25
or older having a total cholesterol value ≥ 5.0 mmol/L (190
mg/dl).
66
 Noncommunicable diseases:
Prevention and Control of NCDs

• Millions of deaths can be prevented by stronger

implementation of measures that exist today.
• These include policies that promote government-wide
action against NCDs:
1. stronger anti-tobacco controls
2. promoting healthier diets,
3. physical activity,
4. reducing harmful use of alcohol;
5. along with improving people's access to essential health
care.

67
 Noncommunicable diseases:
Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable
Diseases
• There is the 2008-2013 Action Plan for the
implementation of the WHO Global Strategy on the
Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases.
This Action Plan was endorsed by the 2008 World Health
Assembly.
• It provides countries a roadmap for taking action against
NCDs, including raising the priority of NCD control,
improving disease surveillance, enabling governments to
take comprehensive action against the diseases, and
protecting countries, particularly developing, from the
burden of the epidemic.

68
 Noncommunicable diseases:
The six objectives of the 2008-2013 Action Plan are:
• To raise the priority accorded to noncommunicable
disease in development work at global and national
levels, and to integrate prevention and control of such
diseases into policies across all government departments
• To establish and strengthen national policies and plans
for the revention and control of noncommunicable
diseases
• To promote interventions to reduce the main shared
modifiable risk factors for noncommunicable diseases :
tobacco use, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity and
harmful use of alcohol
69
 Noncommunicable diseases:
The six objectives of the 2008-2013 Action Plan are:

• To promote research for the prevention and control of

noncommunicable diseases
• To promote partnerships for the prevention and control
of noncommunicable diseases
• To monitor noncommunicable diseases and their
determinants
• Evaluate progress at the national, regional and global
levels

70
Clinical Work-up
•  Motivational Interviewing.
• “We know what works, we know what it costs
and we know that all countries are at risk. We
have an Action Plan to avert millions of
premature deaths and help promote a better
quality of life for millions more.”
Referrals And Referring
Protocols
• Develop or strengthen, where applicable,
preventive, promotive and curative
programmes to address noncommunicable
diseases and conditions, such as
cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes,
chronic respiratory diseases, injuries, violence
and mental health disorders and associated
risk factors, including alcohol, tobacco,
unhealthy diets and lack of physical activity.
• The economic impact of this increase will be substantial because working-age adults
account for a high proportion of the NCD burden. Effective approaches to reduce the NCD
burden in LMIC include a mixture of population-wide and individual interventions. Such
cost-effective interventions are already available and include methods for early detection
of NCDs and their diagnoses using inexpensive technologies, non pharmacological and
pharmacological approaches for modi"cation of NCD risk factors and affordable
medications for prevention and treatment of heart attacks and strokes, diabetes, cancer
and asthma. These low technology interventions, if effectively delivered, can reap future
savings in terms of reduced medical costs, improved quality of life and productivity.
However, due to weak health systems, there are substantive gaps in their implementation
particularly in LMIC. Ef"cient use of limited health care resources, sustainable health
"nancing mechanisms, access to basic diagnostics and essential medicines and organized
medical information and referral systems are imperative for provision of equitable care for
people with and at risk of NCDs. They require long-term care that is proactive, patient
centered, community based and sustainable. Such care can be delivered equitably only
through health systems based on primary health care (PHC).