FACULTY OF MEDICINE

BMD 6116: FMS

ANATOMY LECTURE # 3

CELL DIVISION AND CELL CYCLE

Dr. DEEPA

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 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session you will be able to

 List the phases of cell cycle and its significance
 Describe the methods of cell division – Mitosis and Meiosis
 Define terms related to cell growth and differentiation

 Define the term tumour and give examples of carcinogenic

agents

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 CHROMOSOMES
 In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA
molecule is packaged into thread-
like structures called chromatin
 DNA that makes up chromosomes
becomes more tightly packed
during cell division and is visible
under a microscope
 Each chromosome has a
constriction point called the
centromere
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 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHROMOSOMES, DNA AND GENES

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 CHROMOSOMES
 Carry the genes

 Function: Transmission of
hereditary information
 Normal human somatic cells =
46 chromosomes (DIPLOID –
2n) [22 pairs of autosomes + 1
pair of sex chromosome]
 Human gametes = 23
chromosomes (HAPLOID- n)
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 CELL CYCLE
 The period that follows the formation of a cell by division of its mother
cell until the time when the cell divides again to form two daughter
cells is called the cell cycle.
 Two principal phases:
• Interphase, representing continuous growth of the cell

• M phase (mitosis), characterized by partition of the genome

 Interphase = G1 (gap1) phase, S (synthesis) phase and G2 (gap2)
phase

 Quiescent cells that have not entered the cell cycle are in the G0 state
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 PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

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 TIME LINE FOR A CELL CYCLE

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 CELL DIVISION
 G1 phase - Cell gathers nutrients, synthesizes RNA and proteins
necessary for DNA synthesis & chromosome replication
 S phase – Synthesis of DNA & is doubled = Genetic material
doubled
 G2 phase – Production and accumulation of energy for cell
division.
 M phase - Mitosis occurs. Mitosis nearly always includes

• Karyokinesis (division of the nucleus) and

• Cytokinesis (division of the cell)

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 MITOSIS

 Mitosis is a process of chromosome segregation and nuclear

division followed by cell division that produces two daughter
cells with the same chromosome number and DNA content as
the parent cell
 Four phases
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

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 PROPHASE

 Contraction and condensation of chromatin into shorter, thicker fibres.

Each chromosome now has 2 chromatids (Sister chromatids) held
together by Centromere
 Nucleolus starts to disappear
 Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles forming spindle fibres

 Nuclear membrane breaks down (PROMETAPHASE)

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 METAPHASE

 Maximum condensation of chromatin fibres - distinct rod-like

chromosomes
 Mitotic spindle moves towards the central area of the cell
 Chromosomes move to a plane in the middle of the cell, the equatorial
or metaphase plate.
 Mitotic spindles (microtubules) attach to the centromere region of the
chromosomes and begin to exert pull
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 ANAPHASE

 The centromere splits longitudinally in to two

 The two sister chromatids of each chromosome split apart and
start moving towards opposite poles
 Initiation of cleavage furrow in the cell membrane

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 TELOPHASE

 Reconstitution of a nuclear envelope around the chromosomes

at each pole.
 Chromosomes uncoil and become indistinct
 Nucleoli reappear and Mitotic spindle vanishes
 Cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis) to form two daughter cells
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 The daughter cells are genetically identical
MITOSIS
and contain the same kind and number of
chromosomes

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 MEIOSIS

 Special type of cell division that occurs only in germ cells

(Spermatogonia and Oogonia) in which the chromosome
number is reduced from diploid to haploid and DNA content
is halved
 It comprises of two successive divisions
 MEIOSIS I (reduction division)
 MEIOSIS II (equational division)

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 MEIOSIS

 In males, the two meiotic divisions of a primary spermatocyte

yield four structurally identical, although genetically unique,
haploid spermatids. Each spermatid has the capacity to
differentiate into a spermatozoon.
In contrast,
 In females, the two meiotic divisions of a primary oocyte yield
one haploid ovum and three haploid polar bodies.

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 Duplication of chromosomes

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 Prophase I – Synapsis (aligning in pairs)

Homologous chromosomes

sister chromatids Tetrad

sister chromatids
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 Crossing Over
nonsister chromatids Tetrad

chiasmata: site
of crossing over
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 MEIOSIS

During the S phase that precedes meiosis,

 DNA is replicated forming sister chromatids (two parallel
strands of DNA) joined together by the centromere.
 The DNA content becomes (4d), but the chromosome number
remains the same (2n).
The cells then undergo a reduction division (meiosis I) and an
equational division (meiosis II).

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 MEIOSIS I – PROPHASE I
 Unique event -- the pairing of homologous chromosomes
  Synapsis - process of linking of the replicated homologous
chromosomes = a tetrad, (two chromatids from each
chromosome), forming a thick (4-strand) structure
 Crossing-over –transposition of DNA strands between two
different chromosomes - special structure,  chiasma
 Nucleolus disappears and the Nuclear envelope
disintegrates

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 MEIOSIS I – PROPHASE I

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 MEIOSIS I – PROPHASE I

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 METAPHASE I
 Paired chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial plate with
one member on either side
 Chiasmata are cleaved
 Centromeres become attached to spindle fibres running to
opposite poles and homologues separate

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 ANAPHASE I &
TELOPHASE I

 Similar to the same phases in mitosis except that the centromeres do

not split
 The sister chromatids, held together by centromere, remain together
 Entire set of chromosomes reaches either pole - Telophase

 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are re-organised to form two

daughter nuclei (1n and 2d)

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 MEIOSIS II
 After meiosis I, the cells quickly enter meiosis II without
passing through an S phase.
 Meiosis II is an equational division and resembles mitosis
 Cleavage of the cohesion complexes in the region of the
centromere releases the bond between both centromeres.
• Sister chromatids to separate at anaphase II and move to
opposite poles of the cell

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 MEIOSIS II
 During meiosis II, the cells pass through prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
These stages are essentially the same as those in mitosis
except that
 Meiosis II involve a haploid set of chromosomes (1n)
 Meiosis II produce daughter cells that have only haploid
DNA content (1d)
 Cells produced by meiosis are genetically unique

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 MEIOSIS II

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 Terminologies – Cell growth and
differentiation

 DIFFERENTIATION : The process of cellular replication, growth

and progressive specialization for a variety of functions

 TERMINAL DIFFERENTIATION :  The process of cells acquiring

specialized functions, irreversibly losing their ability to
proliferate further.

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 Cell differentiation

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 TERMINAL DIFFERENTIATION

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 Terminologies – Cell growth and
differentiation

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 Terminologies – Cell growth and
differentiation
 Totipotent stem cells:
 Can differentiate into a new organism
 Pluripotent stem cells:
 Descend from totipotent stem cells
 Can differentiate into any type of cell
 Multipotent stem cells:
 Descend from pluripotent stem cells
 Can differentiate into any specialized cell types & can self-renew
 Unipotent stem cells:
 Descendant of a multipotent stem cell
 Can give rise to a single cell type
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 TUMOUR
 Tumour = Neoplasm (abnormal cell (new) growth)
 Oncology (Greek oncos = tumour) is the study of tumours or
neoplasms.

 Definition:
• A neoplasm is an abnormal mass of tissue, the growth of which
exceeds and is uncoordinated with that of the normal tissues and
persists in the same excessive manner after cessation of the stimuli
which evoked the change

 Two types:
• Benign: remain localized and cannot spread to other sites
• Malignant (Cancer):
 can invade and destroy adjacent structures
 spread to distant sites (metastasize)
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 CARCINOGENIC AGENTS
 Chemical carcinogens:
 E.g. Betel nuts, Nitrosamine and amides, nickel, chromium,
Insecticides, fungicides

 Radiation carcinogens:
 E.g. Ultraviolet rays, Electromagnetic (x-rays, γ rays) and
particulate (α particles, β particles, protons, neutrons) radiations

 Microbial carcinogens:
 E.g. Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1, Human Papilloma virus
(HPV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and
human herpesvirus 8

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 REFERENCES

 Robbins and Cotran, Pathologic Basis of Disease, 9th Edition,

2014, Saunders
 Micheel H.Ross, Histology: A text and atlas, 6th Edition, 2010,
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
 Sadler T W, Langman's Medical Embryology, 12th Edition,
2011, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
 Purves, Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, 1994, Sinauer
Associates
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