LABORATORY

Odielon C. Filomeno, RN, MPH

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diseases and disorders can be associated depending
on what type of muscle is affected and its origin.
Below are some of the conditions.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

-Consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 Processes incoming sensory information.
Stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Consists of the following:
■ Nerves – bundles of axons that lie outside the brain and spinal
cord.
o Cranial nerves x 12 (from brain)
o Spinal nerves x 31 (spinal cord)
■ Ganglion (Ganglia) – masses of nervous tissue consisting of
neuron cell bodies.
■ Enteric plexuses – neurons on the walls of organs of
gastrointes nal tract.
■ Sensory receptors – monitor changes of the internal and
external environment
1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) (Voluntary)
 Convey information to the CNS from somatic receptors in the head, body wall,
limbs, and receptors.
 Conduct impulses to skeletal muscles.
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (Involuntary)
 Convey information from autonomic sensory receptors i.e. stomach, lungs.
 Conduct impulses to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands.
 Sympathetic Division is for “fight-or-flight” responses.
 Parasympathetic Division is for “rest-and-digest” activities.
3. Enteric Nervous System (ENS) (Involuntary)
 Monitor chemical changes in the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), as well as
stretching.
 Govern contractions of the GI tract for substance movement.
TYPES OF NEURONS:
1. Multipolar Neurons
- have many dendrites and a single axon.
- most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all motor neurons are
multipolar
2. Bipolar Neurons
- have two processes: one axon and one dendrite.
- located in some sensory organs, such as in the retina of the eye and in
the nasal cavity.
3. Pseudo-unipolar
- have a single process extending from the cell body.
- this process divides into two processes a short distance from the cell
body.
- one process extend to the periphery, and the other extends to CNS.
CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS.
● Spinal Cord
○ Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar vertebra
■ Cauda Equina → inferior end of spinal cord where spinal nerves exiting resemble horse’s
tail
○ White matter consists of myelinated axons, gray matter is a collection of neuron cell bodies
○ Babinski Reflex → when no inhibition by CNS is present; stroke of bottom of foot causes
flexion in babies
■ White matter is divided into 3 columns:
● Dorsal
● Ventral
● Lateral
■ Each column has 2 types of pathways:
● Ascending Tracts → consist of axons that conduct action potentials toward the brain
● Descending Tracts → consist of axons that conduct action potentials away from brain
Spinal Cord Reflexes:
○ Knee-Jerk Reflex (Patellar Reflex):
■ Stretch reflex (simple)
■ When patellar ligament is tapped, quadriceps femoris muscle
tendon and the muscles themselves are stretched
● Sensory receptors within these muscles are also stretched and the stretch reflex is
activated
■ Clinicians use knee-jerk reflex to see if higher CNS centers that influence this reflex are
functional
○ Withdrawal Reflex (flexor reflex):
■ To remove a limb or another body part from painful stimulus
■ Sensory neurons conduct action potentials through dorsal root to spinal cord, where
sensory neurons
synapse with interneurons, which turn synapse w/ motor neurons
● Motor neurons then stimulate flexor muscles to remove limb from source of painful
stimulus
Spinal Nerves
1. The spinal nerves exit the vertebral column at the cervical,
thoracic,lumbar, and sacral regions.
2. The nerves are grouped into plexuses.
3. The phrenic nerve, which supplies the diaphragm, is the most
important branch of the cervical plexus.
4. The brachial plexus supplies nerves to the upper limb.
5. The lumbosacral plexus supplies nerves to the lower limb.
Other Brain Functions
Communication Between the Right and Left Hemispheres

Sensory information received by one hemisphere is shared with the

other through connections between the two hemispheres called
commissures.
The inhibitory circuits facilitate the actions of the stimulatory circuits
by inhibiting muscle activity in antagonist muscles. In addition,
inhibitory circuits inhibit random movements of the trunk and limbs.
Inhibitory circuits also decrease muscle tone when the body, limbs,
and head are at rest.
Other Brain Functions
Other Brain Functions
Other Brain Functions
Speech
Action potentials from the ear reach the primary auditory cortex,
where the word is perceived; the word is recognized in the auditory
association area and comprehended in portions of the sensory
speech area. Action potentials representing the word are then
conducted through nerve tracts that connect the sensory and motor
speech areas. In the motor speech area, the muscle activity needed
to repeat the word is determined. Action potentials then go to the
premotor area, where the movements are programmed, and finally
to the primary motor cortex, where specific movements are
triggered.
Other Brain Functions
Speech
Action potentials from the ear reach the primary auditory cortex,
where the word is perceived; the word is recognized in the auditory
association area and comprehended in portions of the sensory
speech area. Action potentials representing the word are then
conducted through nerve tracts that connect the sensory and motor
speech areas. In the motor speech area, the muscle activity needed
to repeat the word is determined. Action potentials then go to the
premotor area, where the movements are programmed, and finally
to the primary motor cortex, where specific movements are
triggered.
Other Brain Functions
Speech
Action potentials from the ear reach the primary auditory cortex,
where the word is perceived; the word is recognized in the auditory
association area and comprehended in portions of the sensory
speech area. Action potentials representing the word are then
conducted through nerve tracts that connect the sensory and motor
speech areas. In the motor speech area, the muscle activity needed
to repeat the word is determined. Action potentials then go to the
premotor area, where the movements are programmed, and finally
to the primary motor cortex, where specific movements are
triggered.
Other Brain Functions

Brain Waves and Consciousness

Different levels of consciousness can be revealed by different
patterns of electrical activity in the brain. Electrodes
placed on a person’s scalp and attached to a recording device can
record the brain’s electrical activity, producing an
electroencephalogram (EEG).
Other Brain Functions
electroencephalogram (EEG).
Frequency (Hertz, Hz) is a
key characteristic used to
define normal or abnormal
EEG rhythms. Most waves of
8 Hz and higher frequencies
are normal findings in the
EEG of an awake adult.
Other Brain Functions
They can detect the simultaneous action potentials in large numbers
of neurons.
Alpha waves are observed in a normal person who is awake but in a
quiet, resting state with the eyes closed.
Beta waves have a higher frequency than alpha waves and occur
during intense mental activity. During the beginning of sleep, a rapid
transition takes place from a beta rhythm to an alpha rhythm. As
sleep deepens, progressively more delta waves occur
Other Brain Functions
Delta waves occur during deep sleep, in infants, and in patients with
severe brain disorders. A fourth type of brain waves, theta waves,
are usually observed in children, but they can also occur in adults
who are experiencing frustration or who have certain brain
disorders.
Memory
The storage of memory can be divided into three stages: working, short-term,
and long-term.

Working memory- the brain briefly stores information required for the
immediate performance of a task. It lasts only a few seconds to minutes and
occurs mostly in the frontal cortex. Short-term memory lasts longer than
working memory and can be retained for a few minutes to a few days.
Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory, where it may be
stored for only a few minutes or become permanent, by consolidation, a
gradual process involving the formation of new and stronger synaptic
connections
Memory
Declarative memory, or explicit memory, involves the retention of
facts, such as names, dates, and places, as well as related emotional
undertones.
Procedural memory, or reflexive memory, involves the development
of motor skills, such as riding a bicycle. A whole series of neurons,
called memory engrams, or memory traces, are probably involved in
the long-term retention of a given piece of information, a thought,
or an idea. Repeating the information and associating it with existing
memories help us transfer information from short-term to long-term
memory.
Limbic System and Emotions
Limbic System and Emotions
The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions and nuclei of
the cerebrum and the diencephalon are grouped together under the
title limbic system.

The limbic system influences long-term declarative memory,

emotions, visceral responses to emotions, motivation, and mood. A
major source of sensory input to the limbic system is the olfactory
nerves. The limbic system responds to olfactory stimulation by
initiating responses necessary for survival, such as hunger and thirst.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
✧ Bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion
around the CNS.
✧ Fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord, and
the subarachnoid space.
✧ Flows from the lateral ventricles into the third ventricle and then
through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth
ventricle.
✧ A small amount of CSF enters the central canal of the spinal cord.
✧ Exits the fourth ventricle through small openings in its walls and
roof and enters the subarachnoid space.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

CSF serves five primary purposes: buoyancy (the upward force exerted), protection,
chemical stability, waste removal, and prevention of brain ischemia. (a condition that
occurs when there isn't enough blood flow to the brain to meet metabolic demand.
This leads to limited oxygen supply or cerebral hypoxia and leads to the death of brain
tissue, cerebral infarction, or ischemic stroke)
●Effects of Aging on Nervous System
○ Sensory function gradually declines with age due to decrease in
number of sensory neurons, decrease in
functioning of remaining neurons, and decrease in CNS processing
■ Decreases touch sensation, balance, coordination, etc.
■ Reflexes slow
■ Brain size/weight decreases
■ Short-term memory decreases- Thinking, problem-solving,
intelligence declines
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System

Encephalitis Menigitis
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System
 Please review the
parts and functions
of the brain

THANKS!
 Please review the
parts and functions
of the brain