THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The reproductive system of an organism, also

known as the genital system, is the
biological system made up of all the
anatomical organs involved in
sexual reproduction.
The major function of the reproductive system is
to ensure survival of the species. Other systems
in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary
systems, work continuously to maintain 
homeostasis for survival of the individual. An
individual may live a long, healthy, and happy life
without producing offspring, but if the species is
to continue, at least some individuals must
produce offspring.
The Male Organs
The primary sex organs (gonads) are the testes
(testicles), which are located in an exterior
pouch, the scrotum. They produce the
spermatozoa and the male sex hormones. In a
male fetus, the testes develop within the
abdominal cavity and descend into the scrotum 1
to 2 months before birth.
Partially surrounding each testis is a downward
extension of the peritoneum, the tunica vaginalis,
that is carried into the scrotum during the descent of
the testes. Between a testis and the scrotum is
connective tissue and the cremaster muscle. The
cremaster muscle contracts and relaxes to raise or
lower the testis to maintain a testicular temperature of
94o to 95oF. Higher temperature prevent the
production of viable sperm.
A fibrous capsule forms the outer wall of each testis.
Testicular septa, formed of connective tissue, divide
the testis into several lobules. Each lobule contains
seminiferous tubules that produce spermatozoa.
All seminiferous tubules merge to form the rete
testis, a complex network of tubules. Cilia within the
tubules of the rete testis move the spermatozoa
through several vasa efferentia and on into the
highly coiled epididymis where the spermatozoa
mature.
Note that the epididymis lies over the superior and posterior
portion of the testis. From the epididymis, spermatozoa pass
into the vas deferens, the central canal within the
spermatic cord.
The distal end of each vas deferens is enlarged to form an
ampulla. The ampulla merges with the duct from a
seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.
The ejaculatory duct on each side empties into the
prostatic urethra, the portion of the urethra that is
within the prostate gland. The small
bulbourethral glands empty their secretions into
the urethra at the base of the penis.
Semen is formed of spermatozoa and the alkaline
secretions of the accessory glands. Two-thirds of the
semen is derived from secretions of the seminal
vesicles, and about one-third comes from prostatic
fluid.
Secretions of the bulbourethral glands and spermatozoa
account for very little of the semen volume. The alkaline
secretions protect the spermatozoa from acid
environments, provide nutrients for the sperm, and
activate their swimming movements.
Erection of the penis occurs when its three cylinders
of erectile tissue fill with blood in response to sexual
stimulation. The corpus spongiosum is the cylinder of
tissue that surrounds the penile urethra. Its distal end
is enlarged forming the bulb of the penis.
The two corpora cavernosa are located in the dorsal
part of the penis and are separated by a medial
septum of connective tissue called the septum penis.
A sheath of skin, the prepuce, begins just behind the
glans and extends to cover it. Circumcision is a
surgical procedure that removes the prepuce to
facilitate sanitation.
During sexual stimulation, the secretion from the
bulbourethral glands provides an alkaline environment
within the urethra prior to the passage of the
spermatozoa. Peristaltic contractions move the
spermatozoa from the epididymis into the urethra.
The secretions of the seminal vesicles are mixed
with sperm in the ejaculatory ducts, and prostatic
fluids are added in the proximal part of the
urethra. During ejaculation, rhythmic
contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle at
the base of the penis propel the semen through
the urethra and out of the body.
 
Spermatogenesis

The process by which spermatozoa are produced

in the seminiferous tubules is called
spermatogenesis. It begins at puberty and
continues throughout life.
All spermatozoa originate from spermatogonia that
are located at the periphery of a seminiferous tubule.
These cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of
46 chromosomes, the same as all body cells. Since
they contain both members of each chromosome pair,
they are said to be diploid. The mitotic division of a
spermatogonium forms one replacement
spermatogonium and one primary spermatocyte.
Each diploid primary spermatocyte divides by
meiotic cell division, a type of cell division that
consists of one chromosome replication and two
successive cell divisions. Meiotic division produces
four haploid spermatids from the single diploid
primary spermatocyte.
The first meiotic division forms two haploid
secondary spermatocytes. Each secondary
spermatocyte contains only 23 chromosomes, one
member of each chromosome pair. These
chromosomes are already replicated, so each
chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at
a centromere.
The second meiotic division occurs as each
secondary spermatocyte divides to yield two
haploid spermatids, each with 23
chromosomes. In this division, the
chromatids separate to provide a haploid set
of chromosomes for each spermatid. The
spermatids subsequently mature to become
spermatozoa.
The Female Organs
External Genitalia
Two folds of skin lie on each side of the vaginal
orifice, the labia majora and labia minora. The
larger exterior folds are the labia majora,
which consist of rounded folds of adipose tissue
covered by skin. They merge anteriorly with the
mons pubis, an elevation of fatty tissue over
the symphysis pubis.
The outer surfaces of the labia majora possess hair; their
inner surfaces are smooth and moist. The smaller interior
folds, the labia minora, are devoid of hair and merge
posteriorly with the labia majora. Anteriorly, they join to form
a hoodlike covering, the prepuce of the clitoris. The clitoris
is a small protuberance of erectile tissue located at the
anterior junction of the labia minora. It is homologous to the
penis in the male and is highly sensitive to sexual stimulation.
Collectively, the external female reproductive organs are
called the vulva.
The area between the labia minora is the vestibule.
The vagina opens into the posterior portion of the
vestibule. The urethral orifice is anterior to the
vaginal opening and posterior to the clitoris. On either
side of the vaginal orifice are the openings of the
vestibular glands, which provide a mucous secretion
for vaginal lubrication. The hymen is a thin mucous
membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening.
Its condition or absence is not a determiner of
virginity.
Internal Organs
The internal female reproductive organs are the
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina.
The Ovaries
The primary sex organs (gonads) of the female
reproductive system are the ovaries. They produce
the ova, or egg cells, and the female sex hormones.
The ovaries are ovoid organs located against either
side of the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity.
The Uterine Tubes
The uterine tubes (oviducts or fallopian tubes) extend from
the ovaries to the uterus. Near the ovary, each tube is
expanded to form a funnel-shaped infundibulum that bears a
number of fingerlike extensions, the fimbriae. The fimbriae
and infundibula receive the oocytes released from the ovaries.
The oocytes are carried toward the uterus by peristaltic
contractions of the uterine tubes and the beating cilia of the
ciliated columnar cells that line the tubes. Fertilization usually
occurs within the upper third of a uterine tube.
The Uterus
The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped, thick-walled
organ within which fetal development takes place. It
is located medially over the vagina and is bent
anteriorly over the urinary bladder. The upper two-
thirds of the uterus is called the body; the lower
third, the narrow cervix, projects into the upper
portion of the vagina. The cervical orifice is the
uterine opening into the vagina.
The uterine wall is composed of three layers. The outer
perimetrium is a layer of the peritoneum. The thick
middle layer, the myometrium is composed of
smooth muscle. The inner endometrium forms the
mucosal lining and consists of two parts. The basal
layer is attached to the myometrium. The functional
layer is closest to the uterine cavity, is built up and
shed during each menstrual cycle, and is covered with
columnar epithelium on its free surface.
Ligaments
The ovaries, uterine tubes, and uterus are held in place and
supported by several ligaments. The broad ligament is a fold
of the peritoneum that supports the uterus, uterine tubes, and
ovaries. It extends from the lateral surfaces of the uterus to
the lateral pelvic walls. Two uterosacral ligaments extend
from the cervix to the sacral wall of the pelvic cavity. A round
ligament extends from each side of the uterus to the anterior
body wall.
In addition to the broad ligament, each ovary is held in
place by two ligaments. An ovarian ligament extends
from the uterus to the medial surface of the ovary. The
suspensory ligament extends from the lateral
surface of the ovary to the infundibulum, which in turn
is supported by the infundibulopelvic ligament that
is attached to the pelvic wall.
Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular canal extending from the uterus
to the vestibule. It receives the penis during sexual intercourse
and serves as the birth canal.
Oogenesis
The development of the egg cells is called oogenesis, and it
involves both mitotic and meiotic divisions.
The germinal epithelium is formed early in the prenatal
development of the ovaries. It occurs on the outer surface of
the ovaries and consists of as many as 400,000 oogonia that
form by mitotic division.
By the end of the third month of development, mitotic division
has ceased and some oogonia have migrated inward to become
primary oocytes. Each is surrounded by a sphere of cells
forming a primary follicle. Each primary oocyte is diploid since
it contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 46
chromosomes.
Starting at puberty, several primary oocytes are stimulated to
develop further by FSH. Usually, only one of them will undergo
meiotic division in each ovarian cycle. The first meiotic division
forms one large secondary oocyte and one small non-
functional polar body. Both of these cells are haploid since
they contain only 23 chromosomes, one member of each
The chromosomes are already replicated and consist of
two chromatids joined at the centromere. Each
secondary oocyte is located within a secondary, or
developing, follicle that enlarges and fills with fluid
to become a mature, or graafian, follicle. Ovulation
occurs with the rupture of the mature follicle. The
extruded secondary oocyte and first polar body enter
the infundibulum and are carried toward the uterus by
the uterine tube.
If a secondary oocyte is penetrated by a spermatozoan
(activation), it undergoes the second meiotic division,
which forms the ovum and a polar body.
The first polar body may also divide to form two polar
bodies. Thus, the meiotic division of a diploid primary
oocyte forms four haploid cells: one ovum and three
polar bodies. Note that the bulk of the cytoplasm
passes first to the secondary oocyte and then to the
ovum.
After the formation of the ovum, the egg nucleus and
the sperm nucleus unite (fertilization) to form a diploid
zygote. The polar bodies disintegrate.

Note that the orderly process of gametogenesis

(spermatogenesis and oogenesis) results in the zygote
receiving one member of each chromosome pair from
each parent.