PRESENTATION OF DATA

Lecture #3
WHAT IS CLASSIFICATION?
The term classification is defined as the process of dividing a
set of observations
Or objects into classes or groups in such a way that:
i. observations or objects in each class or group are similar,
ii. observations or objects in each class or group are
dissimilar to observations or objects in other class or
group.
 AIMS OF CLASSIFICATION

The main aims of classification are:

i. To reduce the large sets of data to an easily understood summary.
ii. To display the points of similarity and dissimilarity.
iii. To save mental strain by eliminating unnecessary details
iv. To reflect the important aspects of data; and
v. To prepare the ground for comparison and inference.
 TABULATION
By tabulation, we mean a systematic presentation of data classified
under suitable heads and subheads, and placed in columns and rows.
A British Statistician, Professor Bowley (1869 – 1957), refers to
tabulation as, “the intermediate process between the accumulation
of data, in whatever form they are obtained, and the final reasoned
account of the results shown by the statistics.”
MAIN PARTS OF TABULATION
The main parts of tabulation are given below:
a) TITLE:- A table must have a self-explanatory title, which should
usually tell us the “what, where; how classified and when” of the data,
in that order.
b) Column Captions and Box-head:- The heading of each column is
called a Column caption, while the section of a table that contains the
column captions, is referred to as Box-head.
c) Row Captions and Stub:- The heading and title for a row, is called the Row Caption and
the section containing the row captions is known as Stub.
d) Prefatory Notes and Footnotes:- Explanatory notes incorporated in the table beneath the
title and below the body, are called prefatory notes and footnotes respectively.
e) Source Notes:- Every table should have a source notes. It is placed immediately below the
table and below the footnotes.
f) Body and Arrangement of Data:- The body of a table is the most important part, which
contains
the entire data arranged in columns and rows.
g) Spacing and Ruling:- A proper and judicious use of spacing and ruling enhances the
effectiveness of a table and helps in separating or emphasizing certain items in it.
The general sketch of a table is given below:
 WHAT IS FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION?
The organization of a set of data in a table showing the distribution of
the data into classes or groups together with the number of
observations in each class or group is called Frequency Distribution.

Or
• It is a grouping of all the (numerical) observations into intervals
or classes together with a count of the number of observations that
fall in each interval or class.
In general, we can say frequency distribution is use to change
the ungrouped or Raw data into grouped data. There are two
types of frequency distribution
1) Discrete frequency distribution
used when data is given in the form of whole number for
example No. of students in universities, No. of colleges in
cities, No. of chemicals in labs etc.
2) Continuous Frequency distribution
used when the data is given in the form of intervals such as
weight, length, width etc.
WHAT IS CLASS-LIMITS?

The class-limits are defined as the numbers or the values of the

variables which describes the classes; the smaller number is the lower
class limit and the larger number is the upper class limit. Class-limits
should be well defined and there should be no overlapping.
Example:
Suppose we are given a set of raw numerical data.

These are the average monthly Kilowatt-hours of Households in Barangay Santiago.

20 25 30 36 38 40 40 42
45 48 50 53 56 58 60 64
66 68 70 72 74 80 88 90
96 100 120 130 135 140 150 152
Source: Elementary Statistical manual

The following may be used as a guide in constructing an FDT (note that if there is an existing set of
class intervals for the specific data, then steps 1 to will not apply)
Steps in Constructing a frequency distribution
table
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step
4
Step Step Step
5 6 7
Step 1: Find the range R.

R = highest value – lowest value

Solution:
R = 152 – 20
= 132

Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Back

Step 2: Estimate the number of classes or intervals, k.
where n = number of observations

Note: If the resulting value is fractional, then we take the next higher
integer.

Solution: k=1+3.3log(N)

k = 1+3.3 log(32)

K=5.96 approximately
equal to 6

k= 6
Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Back
 Step 3: Estimate the class width c of each interval.

c = R/k
Note: Round off the answer to the same number of decimal
places
that the observations have.
Solution:
c = 132/6
= 22
Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Back
Step 4:
List the lower and upper class limits of the first
interval.
Class Interval
20 – 41
42 – 63
64 – 85
86 – 107
108 – 129
130 – 152

Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Back

Step 5:

List all the succeeding lower and upper class limits by adding the class with c
to the lower limit of the first class interval. The upper class limit of the first
interval should be the number before the lower class interval of the second
interval. The highest class should contain the largest observation.

Note: Class limits must have the same number of decimal places as the raw
data.
Step 6 Step 7 Back
Step 6: • From the data, tally the observations according to the
interval which it belongs to. Summarize the tallies
in a column for the frequencies.

Class Interval Tally Frequency

20 – 41 IIII-II 7
42 – 63 IIII-III 8
64 – 85 IIII-II 7
86 – 107 IIII 4
108 – 129 I 1
130 – 152 IIII 5
Average Monthly Kilowatt-hours
of Households in Barangay
Santiago Step 7 Back
Step 7: Compute the class marks and class
boundaries of each class intervals

Class mark = (lower class limit + class boundaries)/2

Lower class boundary = lower class limit – ½(unit of accuracy)

Upper class boundary = upper class limit + ½(unit of accuracy)

Note: The number 2.5 is accurate to the tenth unit (or 0.1) while
3.42 is accurate to the hundredth unit (or 0.01).
Next
 Step 7:
Class Interval Tally Frequency Class boundary
20 – 41 IIII-II 7 19.5 – 41.5
42 – 63 IIII-III 8 41.5 – 63.5
64 – 85 IIII-II 7 63.5 – 85.5
Subtract 0.5
86 – 107 Add 0.5 in all IIII 4 85.5 – 107.5
108 – 129 I 1 107.5 – 129.5
130 – 151 IIII 5 129.5 – 152.5

Average Monthly Kilowatt-hours of Households in Barangay

Santiago
For class boundaries use the
formula
(U-L)/2= (42-41)/2
=1/2
=0.5
 Variations of the FDT include relative and
cumulative frequencies.
For example, using data:
Relative Frequency
Class Interval Frequency Relative Cumulative = Frequency/
Frequency Frequency Total Frequency
20 – 41 7 0.21875 7
42 – 63 8 0.25 7+8=15
Cumulative Frequency
64 – 85 7 0.21875 15+7=22 = It is the 'running total'
86 – 107 4 0.125 22+4=26 of frequencies.

108 – 129 1 0.03125 26+1=27

130 – 152 5 0.156 27+5=32
For Practice ( do practice it on your register)
Example related to Discrete Frequency Distribution