TOPIC ONE

METHODS FOR SURVEY ANALAYSIS

DATA/ VARAIBLES CLASSIFICATION
Data timing TIME SERIES CROSs SECTIONAL Panel/ Pooled

Data type QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

Data level
nominal ordinal ratio interval

scale
 Time series data: refers to the data collected at several successive
point of time.
 Cross sectional data: is data collected at the same or approximately
the same point of time.
 Panel: Combined time series and cross sectional features
 Qualitative data: is data that can be placed into distinct categories,
according to the same characteristics or attribute. For example if the
subject are classified according to gender( male, female) than it is
qualitative.
 Quantitative data : quantitative data are numeric and can be ordered
or ranked. for example age is quantitative data and can be ranked
according to the values of their ages, height, weight at temperature are
classified into quantitative data.
Quantitative data can be classified into two groups
 Discrete data : such as1, 2, 3, means can be counted for example we
can count the number of children in a family, the number of students
in class room.
 Continues data : such as data that includes fractions, decimals, so
we assume infinite numbers between any two specific values , for
example temperature is continues data since the difference between
any two given temperature is infinite.
qualitative quantitative
 Deals with description. deals with numbers.
 Data can be observed not. data can be measured.
Measured colors, tests, height, length, weight, temperature.

appearance, beauty etc.

 Ratio: a ratio data has tree properties
1. Ratio of two variables: Y1/Y2
2. Distance between two variables:Y1-Y2
3. Ordering of variables or ranking of variables Y1>Y2, Y1<Y2
 Interval data: interval data do not satisfy the first property of ratio
data but satisfies the other two properties.
 Ordinal data : ordinal data satisfies only ordering or ranking
properties of ratio data, but do not satisfies the other two properties.
 Nominal data: nominal data do not satisfies any properties of ratio
data means do not have any features of ratio data.
NOTE there is difference between nominal and binary data
Nominal data: includes more than two categories e.g. Martial status.
Binary data: includes only two categories e.g. gender (male, female).
Other classification of data(Variables)
Variables can be split into categorical and continuous, and
within these types there are different levels of measurement:
Variables Categorical Continuous

Level of
measurement
Nominal Binary Ordinal Ratio Interval
 Categorical (entities are divided into distinct categories):
 Binary variable: There are only two categories (e.g. dead
or alive).
 Nominal variable: There are more than two categories e.g.
Martial status.
 Ordinal variable: The same as a nominal variable but the
categories have a logical order (e.g. whether people got a
fail, a pass, a merit or a distinction in their exam).
  Continuous (entities get a distinct score):
 Interval variable: Equal intervals on the variable represent
equal differences in the property being measured (e.g. the
difference between 6 and 8 is equivalent to the difference
between 13 and 15).
 Ratio variable: The same as an interval variable, but the
ratios of scores on the scale must also make sense (e.g. a
score of 16 on an anxiety scale means that the person is, in
reality, twice as anxious as someone scoring 8).
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
1. Telephone surveys.
2. Mailed questioner surveys.
3. Person interview surveys.
4. Direct observation of situation.
5. Group discussion.
6. Using available data( secondary data).
Population: a population consist of all subjects that are being studied.
Sample: a sample is a group of subjects selected from population .
Sample determination process:
 How to determine the sample size to your population?
Use any one of the following methods
1. Tempt rule
2. Formula
3. Online calculation
Sampling technique or sample selection techniques
 Simple random sampling : are selected by using chance method or
random numbers so every possible sample of specified size has an
equal chance of being selected.
 Systematic random sampling : a statistical sampling techniques that
involves selecting every Kth , them in the population after a random
selecting point between 1 and k. the value of k is determined as the
ratio of the population size over the desired sample size
 Stratified random sampling : a statistical sampling method in which
the population is divided into subgroups called strata, so that each
population item belong only on stratum, the objective is to form strata
such that the population value of interest with in each stratum are as
much a like possible. Sample item are selected from each stratum
using random sample method
 Clustered sampling : a method by which the population is divided
into groups or clusters that each intended to be mini population.
A sample random sample of M clusters is selected, the item chosen from
the cluster can be selected using any probability sampling techniques.
Summary of sampling technique
 Random : subjects are selected by random numbers.
 systemic : subjects are selected by using every kth numbers after the
first subjects is randomly selected from 1 through k.
 Stratified :subjects are selected by dividing up the population into
groups (strata) and subjects are randomly selected with in groups
 Cluster: subjects are selected using intact groups that representative
of the population.
 Non- probability sampling
This is also referred to as biased sampling and is used when the
researcher is not interested to a good sample that can represent a
population. Non- probability sampling takes the following forms.
 Purposive sampling
This is where one select participants who have the required information
according to the objectives of his/her study. The participants are selected
according to the researchers interest in them. But the researcher must
specify the procedure of choosing the participants
Quote sampling
This is based on where the researcher selected a different portions in
different groups
For example
teachers of primary schools 10
Hospital nurses 15
Shop owners 20
 Convenient sampling or accidental sampling
This is where one select participant depending on how easily
he/she can find them for example radio programmer, they ask
listeners who can call in. this method is biased. The researcher
uses the most available participants.
 Snow ball sampling
This method is used when the population of interest is not
readily available
• HIV-AIDS victims : find one person by all means , next ask
him if he know someone else than continue this until you
get the required sample.
• DRUG LEADERS, GANGS
 Validity and reliability
Validity refers to whether an instrument measures what it
was designed to measure.
To ensure validity, there are various methods used,
 one is use of experts judgment the researcher gives the
instruments to experts in his/her field they judge whether
the instrument is valid
 or not the researcher can compute the content validity from
index (CVI).

.
 CVI = number of items(questions) declared
valid/total number of questions
For example if have a questionnaire which contain 4o
questions and number of questions declared valid are
30 than we can compute whether it is valid or not.
CVI 30/40 = 0.75, 75%.

.
 Reliability: which is whether an instrument can be
interpreted consistently across different situations.,
which means that each time an instrument is used
to measure it will give the same result.
One way to ensure or test for reliability is through
test – re- test method, here the researcher administers
the instrument to a few people and after a period of
around two weeks, you administer it in the same way
people, results of the two tests are compared, if they
differ a lot, the instrument is not reliable.
Also you can use other statistical methods to test reliability such
Cronbach’s α
Cronbach’s α indicates the overall reliability, of a questionnaire, and
values around 0.8 are good (or 0.7 for ability tests and such like).
Types of variables:
 Independent variables: A variable that we think is a cause is
known as an independent variable
 Dependent Variables: A variable that we think is an effect is called
a
dependent variable
Types of data collection methods:
 Independent design/ between groups: is to manipulate the
independent variable using different participants.
 Repeated measures design/ between subjects: is to manipulate the
independent variable using the same participants
 Types of variations/ differences
 Systematic variation: This variation is due to the experimenter doing
something to all of the participants in one condition but not in the
other condition.
 Unsystematic variation: This variation results from random factors
that exist between the experimental conditions (such as natural
differences in ability, the time of day, etc.).

 Types of research studies

 Observational studies: the morally observed what is happening what
has happened in the past tries to draw conclusion based on these
observation.
 Experimental studies: the researchers manipulates variables and tries
to determine how this manipulation influences other variables.
The End