CH-3, Engine Cycles

Mechanical Engineering Dept.
CEME NUST 1
Rank and the Future
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Interest in Our
Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 2
ENGINE CYCLES

AIR-STANDARD CYCLES
 The cycle experienced in the cylinder of an internal combustion
engine is very complex or a difficult system to analyze as it is an open
cycle with changing composition, due to following reasons
 First, air (CI engine) or air mixed with fuel (SI engine) is ingested
and mixed with the slight amount of exhaust residual remaining
from the previous cycle
 This mixture is then compressed and combusted, changing the
composition to exhaust products consisting largely of CO2, H2O,
and N2 with many other lesser components
 After an expansion process, the exhaust valve is opened and this
gas mixture is expelled to the surroundings
AIR-STANDARD CYCLES
 To make the analysis of the engine cycle much more manageable, the
real cycle is approximated with an ideal air-standard cycle which differs
from the actual by the following
 The gas mixture in the cylinder is treated as air (an ideal gas) with
constant specific heats for the entire cycle, and property values of
air are used in the analysis.
 The real open cycle is changed into a closed cycle by assuming that
the gases being exhausted are fed back into the intake system
 The combustion process is replaced with a heat addition term Qin of
equal energy value. Air alone cannot combust.
 The open exhaust process, which carries a large amount of enthalpy
out of the system is replaced with a closed system heat rejection
process Q of equal energy value
AIR-STANDARD CYCLES
 Actual engine processes are approximated with ideal processes
• The almost constant-pressure intake and exhaust strokes are
assumed to be constant pressure
• Compression strokes and expansion strokes are approximated by
isentropic processes
• The combustion process is idealized by a constant-volume process
(SI cycle), a constant-pressure process (CI cycle), or a combination
of both (CI Dual cycle)
• Exhaust blowdown is approximated by a constant-volume process
• All processes are considered reversible

TERMS
 Enthalpy, the sum of the internal energy and the product of the pressure
and volume of a thermodynamic system.
 Entropy, the measure of a system’s thermal energy per
unit temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work
 Isothermal process is thermodynamic process in which the temperature of
a system remains constant. The transfer of heat into or out of the system
happens so slowly that thermal equilibrium is maintained
 Reversible process is a process whose direction can be reversed to return
the system to its original state
TERMS
 Adiabatic process is a type of thermodynamic process which occurs

without transferring heat or mass between the system and its
surroundings. Unlike an isothermal process, an adiabatic process transfers
energy to the surroundings only as work
 Isentropic process is an idealized thermodynamic process that is
both adiabatic and reversible. The work transfers of the system are
frictionless, and there is no transfer of heat or matter. Such an idealized
process is useful in engineering as a model of and basis of comparison for
real processes. Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 8
IDEAL GAS RELATIONS
where

AIR PROPERTY VALUES
 Specific heats of air can be treated as functions of
temperature but for simplification, specific heats of air can
be treated as constants due to little variations in its values
even in large temperature difference range.
 Different values of Cp and Cv used for operating cycle/
exhaust flow and inlet flow
 At the low-temperature end of a cycle during intake and start
of compression, a value of k = Cp/Cv = 1.4 is correct
 However, at the end of combustion the temperature has
risen such that k = 1.3 would be more accurate
OTTO CYCLE
TDC BDC
Ideal air standard Otto Cycle Actual indicator diagram four stroke SI Engine
OTTO CYCLE
 The intake stroke of the Otto cycle starts with the piston at TDC
and is a constant-pressure process at an inlet pressure of one
atmosphere (process 6-1 in Fig).
 This is a good approximation to the inlet process of a real
engine at WOT, which will actually be at a pressure slightly less
than atmospheric due to pressure losses in the inlet air flow.
 The temperature of the air during the inlet stroke is increased
as the air passes through the hot intake manifold.
 The temperature at point 1 will generally be on the order of
25° to 35°C hotter than the surrounding air temperature.

THERMODYNAMICS ANALYSIS OF OTTO CYCLE at WOT

OTTO CYCLE
 The second stroke of the cycle is the compression stroke, which
in the Otto cycle is an isentropic compression from BDC to TDC
(process 1-2).
 This is a good approximation to compression in a real engine,
except for the very beginning and the very end of the stroke
 In a real engine, the beginning of the stroke is affected by the
intake valve not being fully closed until slightly after BDC
 The end of compression is affected by the firing of the spark
plug before TDC
 Also there is an increase in pressure during the compression
stroke, but the temperature within the cylinder is increased
substantially due to compressive heating.
THERMODYNAMICS ANALYSIS OF OTTO CYCLE

OTTO CYCLE
 The compression stroke is followed by a constant-volume heat input

process 2-3 at TDC. This replaces the combustion process of the real
engine cycle, which occurs at close to constant-volume conditions
 In a real engine combustion is started slightly bTDC, reaches its maximum
speed near TDC, and is terminated a little aTDC
 During combustion or heat input, a large amount of energy is added to
the air within the cylinder. This energy raises the temperature of the air
to very high values, giving peak cycle temperature at point 3
 This increase in temperature during a closed constant-volume process
results in a large pressure rise also
 Thus, peak cycle pressure is also reached at point 3.

OTTO CYCLE
 The very high pressure and enthalpy values within the system at TDC
generate the power stroke (or expansion stroke) which follows
combustion (process 3-4)
 High pressure on the piston face forces the piston back towards BDC and
produces the work and power output of the engine
 The power stroke of the real engine cycle is approximated with an
isentropic process in the Otto cycle
 This is a good approximation, subject to the same arguments as the
compression stroke on being frictionless and adiabatic
 In a real engine, the beginning of the power stroke is affected by the last
part of the combustion process
OTTO CYCLE
 The end of the power stroke is affected by the exhaust valve being opened
before BDC. During the power stroke, values of both the temperature and
pressure within the cylinder decrease as volume increases from TDC to
BDC.
 Near the end of the power stroke of a real engine cycle, the exhaust valve
is opened and the cylinder experiences exhaust blowdown
 A large amount of exhaust gas is expelled from the cylinder, reducing the
pressure to that of the exhaust manifold. The exhaust valve is opened
bBDC to allow for the finite time of blowdown to occur
 It is desirable for blowdown to be complete by BDC so that there is no high
pressure in the cylinder to resist the piston in the following exhaust stroke

OTTO CYCLE
 Blowdown in a real engine is therefore almost, but not quite,
constant volume
 A large quantity of enthalpy is carried away with the exhaust
gases, limiting the thermal efficiency of the engine
 The Otto cycle replaces the exhaust blowdown open-system
process of the real cycle with a constant-volume pressure
reduction, closed-system process 4-5
 Enthalpy loss during this process is replaced with heat rejection in
the engine analysis
 Pressure within the cylinder at the end of exhaust blowdown has
been reduced to about one atm, and the temperature has been
substantially reduced by expansion cooling.

OTTO CYCLE
 The last stroke of the four-stroke cycle now occurs as the
piston travels from BDC to TDC
 Process 5-6 is the exhaust stroke that occurs at a constant
pressure of one atmosphere due to the open exhaust valve
 This is a good approximation to the real exhaust stroke,
which occurs at a pressure slightly higher than the
surrounding pressure due to the small pressure drop across
the exhaust valve and in the exhaust system.


OTTO CYCLE
 At the end of the exhaust stroke the engine has

experienced two revolutions, the piston is again at TDC,
the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and a
new cycle begins.


OTTO CYCLE

OTTO CYCLE

REAL AIR-FUEL ENGINE CYCLES
 Real engines operate on an open cycle with changing composition
 Air-standard analysis treats the fluid flow through the entire engine as
air and approximates air as an ideal gas
 There are heat losses during the cycle of a real engine which are
neglected in air-standard analysis
 Combustion requires a short but finite time to occur, and heat addition
is not instantaneous at TDC, as approximated in an Otto cycle
 The blowdown process requires a finite real time and a finite cycle
time, and does not occur at constant volume as in air-standard analysis
 With ignition occurring before bTDC, temperature and pressure rise
before combustion is less than predicted by air-standard analysis
 Valve overlap period causes a deviation from the ideal cycle
ENGINE CYCLE AT PART THROTTLE
 A four-stroke cycle SI engine running at less than WOT conditions,

 Air-fuel input is reduced by partially closing the throttle (butterfly
valve) in the intake system creating a flow restriction and
consequent pressure drop in the incoming air
 Fuel input is then also reduced to match the reduction of air
 Air experiences an expansion cooling because of the pressure drop
across the throttle valve, but its temperature is about the same as
at WOT because it first flows through the hot intake manifold.

 The net indicated work for the Otto cycle engine will be less at
part throttle than at WOT
 The upper loop of the cycle made up of the compression and
power strokes represents positive work output, while the lower
loop consisting of the exhaust and intake strokes is negative
work absorbed off the rotating crankshaft
 Two main factors contribute to the reduced net work at part-
throttle operation
 The lower pressure at the start of compression results in
lower pressures throughout the rest of the cycle except for
the exhaust stroke lowering mep and net work
 When less air is ingested into the cylinders during intake
because of this lower pressure, fuel input by injectors or
carburetor is also proportionally reduced resulting in less
thermal energy from combustion in the cylinders and less
resulting work out
 It should be noted that although qin is reduced, the
temperature rise in process 2-3 for WOT and part throttle is
almost the same
 This is because the mass of fuel and the mass of air being
heated are both reduced by an equal proportion


Work done during intake stroke
Work done during exhaust stroke
Net indicated pumping work
Pump mean effective pressure

ENGINE WITH TURBO /SUPER CHARGER
 Higher Intake pressure than

atmospheric pressure
 More air and fuel in the
combustion chamber
 Increased net indicated work

ENGINE WITH SUPER / TURBO CHARGER
 Higher intake pressure increases all pressures through the cycle,
and increased air and fuel give greater Qin in process 2-3
 When air is compressed to a higher pressure by a supercharger or
turbocharger, the temperature is also increased due to
compressive heating
 This would increase air temperature at the start of the
compression stroke, which in turn raises all temperatures in the
remaining cycle
 This can cause self-ignition and knocking problems in the latter
part of compression or during combustion.
ENGINE WITH SUPER / TURBO CHARGER
 For this reason, engine compressors can be equipped with an

aftercooler to again lower the compressed incoming air
temperature
 Aftercoolers are heat exchangers which often use outside air as the
cooling fluid
 In principle, aftercoolers are desirable, but cost and space
limitations often make them impractical on automobile engines
 Instead, engines equipped with a supercharger or turbocharger will
usually have a lower compression ratio to reduce knocking
problems
DIESEL CYCLE
 Early CI engines injected fuel into the combustion chamber

very late in the compression stroke
 Due to ignition delay and the finite time required to inject the
fuel, combustion lasted into the expansion stroke
 This kept the pressure at peak levels well past TDC
 This combustion process is best approximated as a constant-
pressure heat input in an air-standard cycle
 The rest of the cycle is similar to the air-standard Otto cycle.
The diesel cycle is sometimes called a Constant pressure cycle

DIESEL CYCLE
 The difference between Otto and diesel cycle is method of heat addition

INDICATOR DIAGRAM OF HISTORIC DIESEL ENGINE
TDC BDC

DIESEL CYCLE

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AIR STANDARD DIESEL CYCLE






DUAL CYCLE
 In Otto cycle combustion is assumed to be at constant volume

and in Diesel cycle it is at constant pressure
 This is far from real as some time interval is required for the
chemical reactions during combustion
 The Dual cycle also called mixed cycle is a compromise
between Otto and Diesel cycles
 In a Dual cycle part of heat is supplied at constant volume and
then at constant pressure
DUAL CYCLE

DUAL CYCLE

THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF AIR-STANDARD DUAL CYCLE
The analysis of an air-standard Dual cycle is

the same as that of the Diesel cycle except for
the heat input process (combustion) 2-x-3.





COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL CYCLES SAME INLET PRESSURE
AND SAME COMPRESSION RATIO

COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL CYCLES
Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles with the

same inlet conditions and the same
compression ratios

COMPARISON OF OTTO, DIESEL, AND DUAL CYCLES
 The area under the process lines

on T-s coordinates is equal to the
heat transfer, so the thermal
efficiencies can be compared
 For each cycle, qout is the same
(process 4-1). qin of each cycle is
different
 ŋtOtto > ŋtDual > ŋtDiesel

Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles
 The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison
of the cycles are compression ratio, peak pressure, heat addition, heat
rejection and the net work
 In order to compare the performance of the Otto, Diesel and Dual
combustion cycles, some of the variable factors must be fixed
 In this section, a comparison of these three cycles is made for the same
compression ratio, same heat addition, constant maximum pressure and
temperature, same heat rejection and net work output
 This analysis will show which cycle is more efficient for a given set of
operating conditions
 The important variable factors which are used as the basis for
comparison of the cycles are :-
 Compression ratio,
 Peak pressure,
 Heat addition,
 Heat rejection
 Net work

 Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition:

 The Otto cycle 1-2-3-4-1, the Diesel cycle 1-2-3'-4'-1 and the Dual cycle 1-2-
2”-3”-4”-1 are shown in p-V and T-s diagram in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively
for the same compression ratio and heat input
 Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition:
 From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3'-6’ =
Area 5-2-2"-3"-6" as this area represents the heat input which is the
same for all cycles
 All the cycles start from the same initial state point 1 and the air is
compressed from state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same
 It is seen from the T-s diagram for the same heat input, the heat
rejection in Otto cycle (area 5-1-4-6) is minimum and heat rejection in
Diesel cycle (5-1-4'-6') is maximum
 Consequently, Otto cycle has the highest work output and efficiency
 Diesel cycle has the least efficiency and Dual cycle having the efficiency
between the two Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 63
Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection:

 Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection:
 Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by [Figs (a) and (b)],
 Where, Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the
curve 2-3 on the T-s diagram [Fig.4.7.2 (b)]. The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given
by,
 Where Q’s is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle and is equal to the area under the
curve 2-3' on the T-s diagram [Fig. (b)].
 From the T-s diagram in Fig., it is clear that Qs > Q’s i.e., heat supplied in the Otto
cycle is more than that of the Diesel cycle
 Hence, it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than the
efficiency of the Diesel cycle for a given compression ratio and heat rejection.
Case 3: Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection:

 Figures (a) and (b) show the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 and Diesel cycle 1-2'-3-4 on
p-V and T-s coordinates, where the peak pressure and temperature and the
amount of heat rejected are the same. Efficiency of Otto cycle is
 The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by,
 It is evident from Fig. that Qs > Q’s. Therefore, the Diesel cycle efficiency
is greater than the Otto cycle efficiency when both engines are built to
withstand the same thermal and mechanical stresses

 Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:

Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:

 For same maximum pressure and heat input, the Otto cycle (1-2-3-4-1) and
Diesel cycle (1-2'-3'-4'-1) are shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig. (a) and
(b) respectively
 It is evident from the figure that the heat rejection for Otto cycle (area 1-5-
6-4 on T-s diagram) is more than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle (1-5-6'-4')
 Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle for the condition of
same maximum pressure and heat input
 One can make a note that with these conditions, the Diesel cycle has higher
compression ratio than that of Otto cycle
 One should also note that the cycle which is having higher efficiency allows
maximum expansion. The Dual cycle efficiency will be between these two
Comparison of Otto, Diesel Cycles
 Case 5: Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output
 Refer to T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.4 (b). For same work output the area 1-2-
3-4 (work output of Otto cycle) and area 1-2'-3'-4' (work output of Diesel
cycle) are same
 To achieve this, the entropy at 3 should be greater than entropy at 3'
 It is clear that the heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than that of
diesel cycle. Hence, for these conditions, the Diesel cycle is more
efficient than the Otto cycle
 The efficiency of Dual cycle lies between the two cycles
SUMMARY -Comparison of Otto, Diesel Cycles
Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition
 Otto cycle has the highest work output and efficiency
Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection:
 Efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than the efficiency of the Diesel
cycle
 Diesel cycle efficiency is greater than the Otto cycle efficiency when
both engines are built to withstand the same thermal and mechanical
stresses
Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:
 Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle
Case 5: Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output
 Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle
TWO – STOKE SI ENGINE CYCLE
An Air-standard approximation to a
typical two-stroke SI engine

An Air-standard approximation
to a typical two-stroke SI engine
Process 3-4-5 intake, and

exhaust scavenging.
Exhaust port open and intake port
open:

Intake air entering at an absolute pressure on
the order of 140-180 kPa fills. and scavenges
the cylinder. Scavenging is a process in which
the air pushes out most of the remaining
exhaust residual from the previous cycle
through the open exhaust port into the
exhaust system, which is at about one
atmosphere pressure. The piston uncovers the
intake port at point 3, reaches BDC at point 4,
reverses direction, and again closes the intake
port at point 5. In some engines fuel is mixed
with the incoming air. In other engines the
fuel is injected later, after the exhaust port is
closed.
Exhaust scavenging continues until

the Exhaust port is closed at point 6

In some engines, fuel is added very early in

the compression process. The spark plug is
fired near the end of process 6-7

TWO – STOKE CI ENGINE CYCLE
Many compression ignition engines-especially large ones-operate on two-

stroke cycles. These cycles can be approximated by the air-standard cycle
shown in Fig. 3-17. This cycle is the same as the two-stroke SI cycle
except for the fuel input and combustion process. Instead of adding fuel
to the intake air or early in the compression process, fuel is added with
injectors late in the compression process, the same as with four-stroke
cycle CI engines. Heat input or combustion can be approximated by a
two-step (dual) process


Example 3.1, 3.2
3-5 EXHAUST PROCESS
ATKINSON CYCLE
3-9 MILLER CYCLE Own study
3-10 COMPARISON OF MILLER CYCLE AND OTTO CYCLE
3-12 STIRLING CYCLE
3-13 LENOIR CYCLE

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Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 3

Mechanical Engineering Dept. CEME NUST 6

 Adiabatic process is a type of thermodynamic process which occurs

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 The compression stroke is followed by a constant-volume heat input

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 At the end of the exhaust stroke the engine has

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 A four-stroke cycle SI engine running at less than WOT conditions,

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Work done during exhaust stroke

Net indicated pumping work

Pump mean effective pressure

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 Higher Intake pressure than

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 For this reason, engine compressors can be equipped with an

 Early CI engines injected fuel into the combustion chamber

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 In Otto cycle combustion is assumed to be at constant volume

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The analysis of an air-standard Dual cycle is

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Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles with the

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 The area under the process lines

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 Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition:

Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection: