MATHEMATICAL

INDUCTION

1
The principle of mathematical induction is a useful tool for
proving that a certain predicate is true for all positive integers.
It cannot be used to discover theorems, but only to prove
them.

If we have a propositional function P(n), and we want to

prove that P(n) is true for any positive integer n, we do the
following:

Basis Step: We verify that P(1) is true.

Inductive Step: We show that the conditional statement P(k)

→ P(k + 1) is true for all positive integers k.
Example:
Show that n < 2n for all positive integers n.

 Let P(n) be the proposition “n < 2n.”

 Show that P(1) is true.(basis step)

P(1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.

 Show that if P(n) is true, then P(n + 1) is true.(inductive step)

Assume that n < 2n is true.

We need to show that P(n + 1) is true, i.e.n + 1 < 2n+1

Since n < 2n
n + 1 < 2n + 1
 2n + 2n = 2n+1

Therefore, if n < 2n then n + 1 < 2n+1

 Then P(n) must be true for any positive integer.
(conclusion)

Therefore, n < 2n is true for any positive integer.

 Show that
1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2

Proof:
1. Show that P(0) is true.(basis step)
For n = 0 we get 0 = 0. True.

2. Show that if P(n) then P(n + 1) for any n Z+. (inductive step)

1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2
1 + 2 + … + n + (n + 1) = n (n + 1)/2 + (n + 1)
= (n + 1) (n/2 + 1)
= (n + 1) (n + 2)/2
= (n + 1) ((n + 1) + 1)/2
3. Then P(n) must be true for any nZ+.
(conclusion)

 1 + 2 + … + n = n (n + 1)/2 is true for all nZ+.

Sums of Geometric Progressions Use mathematical
induction to prove this formula for the sum of a finite
number of terms of a geometric progression with initial
term a and common ratio r:

where n is a nonnegative integer.

Solution: Let P(n) be the statement that the sum of the

first n + 1 terms of a geometric progression in this
formula is correct.

Basis Step: P (0) is true, because

Inductive Step: Suppose P(k) is true, where k is an
arbitrary nonnegative integer. That is, P(k) is the
statement that

Adding ark+1 on both sides

Rewriting the right-hand side of this equation

Combining these last two equations gives

Use mathematical induction to prove that n3 − n is divisible by 3 whenever n
is a positive integer.

Solution: To construct the proof, let P(n) denote the proposition: “n3 − n is
divisible by 3.”

Basis Step: The statement P(1) is true because 13 − 1 = 0 is divisible by 3.

INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume that P(k) is true; that is, we

assume that k3 − k is divisible by 3 for an arbitrary positive integer k.

We must show that the statement P(k + 1)= (k+1)3 − (k+1) is divisible by 3, is
also true.

Since k3 − k is divisible by 3 and the second term is divisible by 3 because it is

3 times an integer, therefore (k+1)3 − (k+1) is also divisible by 3.
Strong Induction:
To prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n,
where P(n) is a propositional function, we complete two
steps:

Basis Step: We verify that the proposition P(1) is true.

Inductive Step: We show that the conditional statement
[P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧ · · · ∧ P(k)] → P(k + 1) is true for all
positive integers k.
Example: Show that every integer greater than 1 can be written as the product
of primes.

 Show that P(2) is true. (basis step)

2 is the product of one prime: itself.

 Show that if P(2) and P(3) and … and P(n),

then P(n + 1) for any nN. (inductive step)
Two possible cases:
 If (n + 1) is prime, then obviously P(n + 1) is true.
 If (n + 1) is composite, it can be written as the product of two integers a
and b such that
2  a  b < n + 1.
 By the induction hypothesis, both a and b can be written as the product
of primes.
 Therefore, n + 1 = ab can be written as the product of primes.

Then P(n) must be true for any nN.

(conclusion)