OVERALL INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRONIC/SEMI SWITCHES
-
Electronic Switches
Diodes
- BJT
- FET/MOSFET
- Power JFET
-  Thyristors (4 layer pnpn)
- Shock%ley diodes
- SCR (Silicon controlled rectifiers)
- SCS (Silicon controlled switches)
- RCT (Reverse-conducting thyristors)
- SITH (Static induction thyristors)
- LASCR (Light activated SCR)
- GTO (Gate Turn-off thyristors)
- DIAC/TRIAC
- IGCT (Insulated gate-commutated thyristors)
- FET-CTH (FET-controlled thyristors)
- FCT  (Field-controlled thyristors)
- MCT (MOS-controlled thyristors)
- ETO (Emitter turn-off thyristors)
- IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors)
- PIC (High Voltage (Power) Integrated Circuits)
- UJT (Uni-Junction Transistors) 
- PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistors)
- Other devices: Leds, Photovoltaic, Photoconductive, Photodiodes,
Phototransistor/Optical Couplers
Switch Types
Power Semiconductor Devices, their
Symbols & Characteristics
DEVICE SYMBOLS & CHARACTERISTICS
 Switches Classification
 Semiconductor devices can be categorized into 3 types
based on their control input requirements:
• Current-driven devices – BJTs, MDs, GTOs
• Voltage-driven devices – MOSFETs, IGBTs, MCTs
• Pulse-driven devices – SCRs, TRIACs
• Can be categorised into three groups:
– Uncontrolled: Diodes - on/off determined by the power
circuit
– Semi-controlled: Thyristors (SCRs, Triacs, ...) - latched on by a
control signal but turned off by the power circuit.
– Fully controlled: Transistors: e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO,
IGCT - turned on and off by control signals.
 Switches Classification
• 1. Uncontrolled turn on and off (Diodes)
• 2. Controlled turn on uncontrolled turn off (Thyristors)
• 3. Controlled turn on and off characteristic (Transistors: BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT, GTO)
• 4. Continuous gate signal requirement (BJT, MOSFET, IGBT)
• 5. Pulse gate requirement (SCR, DIAC, TRIAC, GTO)
• 6. Bipolar voltage-withstanding capability (SCR, GTO)
• 7. Unipolar voltage-withstanding capability (BJT, MOSFET, IGBT,
GTO)
• 8. Bidirectional current capability (TRIAC)
• 9. Undirectional current capability (SCR, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT,
GTO)
 The insulated-gate bipolar transistor or
IGBT is a three-terminal power
semiconductor device, noted for high
efficiency and fast switching.

The Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) is a new

high-power semiconductor device. An IGCT is a sub family of
the GTO thyristor and like the GTO thyristor is a fully-
controllable power switch.
Thyristors thyristoren
 Ideal vs. Practical Switches
Ideal switch Practical switch

Block arbitrarily large Finite blocking voltage

forward and reverse with small current flow
voltage with zero during turn-off
current flow when off

Conduct arbitrarily Finite current flow and

large currents with appreciable voltage drop
zero voltage drop during turn-on (e.g. 2-3V
when on for IGBT)

Switch from on to off Requires finite time to

or vice versa reach maximum voltage
instantaneously when and current. Requires
triggered time to turn on and off.

Very small power In general voltage driven

required from control devices (IGBT,
source to trigger the MOSFET) requires small
switch power for triggering.
GTO requires substantial
amount of current to turn
off.
 Switch Application
• Static applications
– Involves non-rotating or moving mechanical
components.
– Examples:
• DC Power supply, Un-interruptible power supply, Power
generation and transmission (HVDC), Electroplating,
Welding, Heating, Cooling, Electronic ballast

• Drive applications
– Intimately contains moving or rotating components
such as motors.
– Examples:
• Electric trains, Electric vehicles, Air-conditioning System,
Pumps, Compressor, Conveyer Belt (Factory automation).
 Application summary (1)
• In analog circuits , transistors are used in amplifiers , audio
amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers, regulated power
supplies , and in computer PSU s, especially in switching
power supplies
• Transistors are ... used in digital circuits where they function
similarly to electrical switches. Digital circuits include logic
gates , RAM (random access memory) and
microprocessors .
• Oscillating Circuits
• Sensors
• Darlington
• Motor drive – traction drives (dc and ac), e.g., 400 – 3000V
with IGBT
• Utility interfaces – AC-DC, UPS, VAr compensation (e.g.,
IGBT)
• Unity power factor converters (e.g., IGBT)
 Application summary (2)
• Switching
– Switch for a digital signal: BJT or MOSFET
– Switch for a analog signal: JFET
– Switch for a power signal: Power MOSFET or BJT

• Switched-mode power supplies

• Amplification
– Current controlled-current amplifier: BJT
– Voltage controlled-current amplifier: JFET or
MOSFET

• Motor drive
– Voltage motor drives (AC and DC), typically below a
few hundred volts.
–
Device Applications
 Ideal and Non-ideal Switches

• Forward conduction loss

– Ideal switch:
• Zero voltage drop across it during turn-on (Von).
• Although the forward current ( Ion ) may be large, the losses on the switch is
zero.
– Real switch:
• Exhibits forward conduction voltage (on state) (between 1-3V, depending on
type of switch) during turn on.
• Losses is measured by product of volt-drop across the device Von with the
current, Ion, averaged over the period.
– Major loss at low frequency and DC
 Ideal and Non-ideal Switches
• Blocking state loss
– During turn-off, the switch blocks large voltage.
– Ideally no current should flow through the switch. But for real switch a small amount of
leakage current may flow. This creates turn-off or blocking state losses
– The leakage current during turn-off is normally very small, Hence the turn-off losses are
usually neglected.

• Switching loss
– Ideal switch:
• During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch requires zero transition time. Voltage and current are
switched instantaneously.
• Power loss due to switching is zero
– Real switch:
• During switching transition, the voltage requires time to fall and the current requires time to rise.
• The switching losses is the product of device voltage and current during transition.
– Major loss at high frequency operation
 Ideal Switches
• Accept voltages of both polarities
– Both negative and positive
• Accept currents of both polarities
– Both negative and positive
• No breakdown voltage
– Perfect isolation in off state
• Zero on-resistance
– No voltage drop over the switch
• No switch delay
• Zero energy switching
– No power dissipated during operation
 Non-Ideal Switches
• Switching frequency
fs = 1/Ts (Hz) where Ts = switching
period (sec)
• Linear model
– Rise and fall time
on both V and I
– Voltage drop Von
– I0 models an
inductor
• Power loss!
 Non-Ideal Switches
• During turn-on transition
– td(on) = turn on delay time
– tri = current rise time
– tfv = voltage fall time
– td(on)= tri + tfv = turn on crossover
time

• During turn-off transition

– td(off) = turn off delay time
– tfi = current fall time
– trv = voltage rise time
– td(off)= tfi + trv = turn off crossover
time
Non-Ideal Switches
Non-ideal Switch Power
 Non-Ideal Switches: Dead Time
• Both switches located on each
leg of inverter cannot be
turned on at the same time.
• Otherwise a short through or
cross conduction on current
through the leg happens.
• Practically, a dead time (few
µsec for fast switching devices)
is introduced to make sure the
upper and lower switched not
turn on simultaneously.
 Ideal switch vs practical switch
IDEAL PRACTICAL
Block arbitrary large forward and reverse Finite blocking voltage with small leakage
voltages with zero current flow when off current during OFF

Instantaneous switching from one state Does not instantaneously switch; there is
to the other turn-on and turn-off time

Conduct arbitrary large current with zero Finite current conduction capability with
voltage drop when on small forward voltage drop

Negligibly small power required from Some devices required appreciable

control source to trigger the switch power to be triggered
 Ideal switch vs practical switch

• In this course, we use ideal switch to describe the power

electronic circuits operations – occasionally practical switches
will be mentioned.

• PE circuit design need to use actual device model in order to

analyze power dissipation and efficiency
Review of Semiconductors
and
Diodes
 Review of Semiconductors
• The two semiconductors of greatest importance are Silicon (Si)
and Germanium (Ge)

• Both elements have four valence (hoa tri) electrons

•The conduction band is defined as the lowest unfilled energy band

• The valence band is an energy region where

the states are filled or partially filled by
valence electrons

• Electrons in the valence band can be moved

to the conduction band with the application
of energy, usually thermal energy
 Review of Semiconductors
• A material can be classified as:
1. Insulator – has valence and conduction bands well
separated
2. Semiconductor – has valence band close to conduction
band (the energy gap is about 1eV).
3. Conductor – has the conduction and valence bands
overlapping

• Pure semiconductors (Si, Ge) are poor conductors

• Semiconductors are valuable for two unusual properties:

1. Conductivity increases exponentially with temperature
(ex: Thermistor)
2. Conductivity can be increased and precisely controlled by
adding small impurities in a process called doping.
 Review of Semiconductors
• n-type doping – adds impurities from column V of the
periodic table to a semiconductor material. Negative free
charge carriers (electrons) become available.

• p-type doping – adds impurities from column III of the

periodic table to a semiconductor material. Positive free
charge carriers (holes) become available.
 Semiconductor “n” and “p” type

Doping pure Germanium or Silicon (which are insulators) with

five valance electron material such as Antimony, Arsenic,
Phosphorous will produce the n-type semiconductor material
where the number of electrons far outweighs the number of
holes. In an n-type material (Fig. 1.13a) the electron is
called the majority carrier and the hole the minority
Fig. 1.13a carrier.
Doping pure Germanium or Silicon (which are insulators) with
three valance electron material such as Boron, Gallium,
Indium will produce the p-type semiconductor material
where the number of holes far outweighs the number of
electrons, as shown in Fig. 1.13b. Therefore: In a p-type
material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron
is the minority carrier.
Fig. 1.13b
33
Semiconductor P- N Junction

pn-junction is formed by Partial Doping of

n-type semiconductor material with three
valance electron material such as Boron,
Gallium, Indium which will produce the pn-
junction semiconductor diode

Or pn-junction is formed by Partial Doping

of p-type semiconductor material with five
valance electron material such as Antimony,
Arsenic, Phosphorous which will produce
the pn-junction semiconductor diode

34
 Diodes

• A diode is created when a p-type semiconductor is

joined with and n-type semiconductor by the
addition of thermal energy.

• When both materials are joined, the thermal

energy causes positive carriers in the p-type
material to diffuse into the n-type region and
negative carriers in the n-type material to diffuse
into the p-type region.

• This creates the depletion region within the diode.

 PN junction diode

Current flows from high

potential to low potential
P N

 Two terminals: Anode (A) and Cathode (K)

 Anode is associated with p-type material.

 Cathode is associated with n-type material.
 When anode is connected to a relatively higher potential than cathode,
the diode is Forward Biased. Current flows from anode to cathode.
 When anode is connected to a relatively lower potential than cathode,
the diode Reverse Biased. No current flows.
Diode Symbols
 Diodes: Depletion Region
• The depletion region contains an internal electric field caused by the
separation of charge. This is called the potential barrier and it acts to
oppose the diffusion of majority carriers across the junction.

Mayority carriers Mayority carriers

p n

Depletion Region

• Under open circuit conditions no current flows through the diode.

 Current flow in the diode: Forward-Bias junction Diode

• The behavior of a diode depends on the the polarity of the circuit

• A diode is forward biased if “n” is connected to the negative voltage and “p”
is connected to the positive voltage. The majority carriers are forced
towards the junction and the depletion region decreases.
• If the voltage is high enough the depletion region can be entirely
eliminated. Depletion Region
• Current is sustained by the majority carriers. Original Size

p n
if

Forward Biased

Vo
Vo-V
Potential Barrier
 Forward-Bias junction Diode
When “n” is connected to the negative voltage
and “p” is connected to the positive voltage
then majority carriers will cross the junction
due to the strong attraction by opposite
voltages (negative voltage will attract holes
from “p” material and positive voltage will
attract electrons from “n” material) creating
majority current.
The current that exists under forward-bias
conditions is called the forward -bias current
and is represented by ID
The forward bias current ID is given by the
equation:
  kVD   IS=reverse saturation current
  T 
ID  Is  e  K I
 s k=11,600/ (=1 for Ge and =2 for Si)
p n  
  TK=TC+273˚ (absolute temperature in K)
forward-bias ID

40
 Characteristics of FB on pn junction diode
Characteristic of a diode describes the
behaviours of voltage and current of the
 Forward biased characteristics of pn junction diode under different biasing conditions.
diode (VA>VK) i.e. the relationship of current and
ID voltage (ID~VD) of a diode under forward
bias and reverse bias conditions.

+ A +
VS VD
V Voltmeter
_
K
- Voltmeter must be connected in
parallel with the component.
VD=VAK=VA-VK
Ammeter must be connected in
series in the circuit.
A Check the polarity
-
+

of the meter
Ammeter *FB represents Forward Biased.
 Characteristics of FB on pn junction diode (cont’d)

VD(V) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

ID(mA) 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.4 1.3 3.5 5.6 8.5

ID(mA) When VD<0.65V, very small amount of

current (in A) flows across the junction
(diffusion current)
10.0
When VD>0.65V, significant amount of
8.0 Forward operating current flows (in mA)
region
6.0
The required forward bias voltage to provide
large current flow in silicon diode is >0.7V.
4.0
Forward The required forward bias voltage to provide
2.0 diffusion large current flow in germanium diode is
region Knee >0.3V.
VD(V)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

 Quiz
1. True or False? If measured potential difference across the anode and cathode
of a diode is positive, this diode is reverse biased.
2. True or False? If measured voltage drop across the cathode and anode of a
diode is negative, this diode is reverse biased.
3. True or False? I-V curve describes the behaviours of a diode under forward
and reverse biasing conditions.
4. True or False? When an applied voltage is greater then knee voltage, the
diode is in forward diffusion region.
5. True or False? In forward diffusion region, the forward current is very small
and can be neglected.
6. What is forward operating region of a diode?
7. True or False? In forward operating region, the slight increasing on forward
voltage will cause the significant change on forward current.
 Current flow in the diode: Reverse-Bias junction Diode
• A diode is reverse biased if the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to the n-type material. The majority carriers are forced
away from the junction and the depletion region increases.
• The majority carriers are unable to create a current
• There is a small reverse current or leakage current sustained by the
minority carriers
• If reverse bias is sufficiently increased, a sudden increase in
reverse current is observed. This is known as the Zener or Avalanche effect

Depletion Region
Original Size

p n ir
Vo+V
Vo
V
Potential Barrier

Reverse Biased
 Reverse-Bias junction Diode
When “p” is connected to the negative voltage
and “n” is connected to the positive voltage
(reverse-bias) then majority carriers will not
cross the junction but will create a depletion
region at the junction (no majority current)
The current that exists under reverse-bias
conditions is by minority (because p has some
electrons and n has some holes) current called
the reverse saturation current and is
represented by IS
The reverse saturation current is seldom more
than a few microamperes except for high-
power devices. In fact, in recent years its
level is typically in the nanoampere range for
silicon devices and in the low-microampere
reverse-bias range for germanium.
ID  Is
When terminal voltage VD is negative, current in the reverse direction ID is
constant and equal to IS, called saturation current:
ID = -IS;
Typically, real life diodes exhibit much larger reverse currents: 46
I = 10 -> 10 A
-15 -14
 Characteristics of RB on pn junction diode
 Reverse biased characteristics of pn junction diode,
VA<VK
VD=VKA=VK-VA

_ Under reverse bias

A + condition, very small amount
VS VD of current (in A) (saturation
V Voltmeter current) flows across the
+
K junction.
-
ID

Q: Are the readings of voltmeter and

ammeter positive or negative? Why?
A
-
+

Ammeter
*RB represents Reverse Biased
 Characteristics of RB on pn junction diode (cont’d)

VD(V) -1 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45

ID(A) -0.2 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 -1.0 -- -- --

Breakdown *Negative values represent reverse

voltage, VBR biased When VD<VBR, a very small reverse
current flows due to minority carrier.
VD(V) -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 This region is reverse leakage region.
When VD>VBR, avalanche breakdown
-1.0
occurs. A large reverse current---
Reverse leakage avalanche current flows. The diode can
region
-2.0 be damaged (except Zener diode).
Reverse breakdown
region Knee VBR is in the range of a few tens of
-3.0
volts to many hundreds of volts.
-4.0

-5.0

ID(A)
 Quiz
True or False? When the voltage at cathode terminal is
higher then the voltage at anode, this diode is forward
biased.
True or False? In reverse leakage region, the reverse current
is very small and caused by minority carriers which are
generated by doping.
What happen to a pn junction diode when working in
reverse breakdown region?
True or False? In reverse breakdown region, the slight
increasing of reverse voltage will cause the significant
change on reverse current.
Diode Characteristic Curve
Ideal Diode – no resistance to current flow
in the forward direction and infinite resistance I
in the reverse direction. (Equivalent to a switch).

conduction
region

V
non-conduction
region

Ideal Curve
A diode -> ideal diode if:
-Umth >> UD0
- Rt + Rth >> rD
-fmax >> fth
 Diode current-voltage characteristic (I-V curve)
ID(mA)

10.0

8.0 Forward
operating region
6.0
Breakdown 4.0
voltage, VBR Forward
2.0 diffusion
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 region VD(V)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

-1.0
Reverse leakage
region VF
-2.0
Reverse
breakdown Knee -3.0
region
-4.0

-5.0

ID(A)
 Simplified silicon diode I-V curve
ID(mA)

10.0

8.0
Forward
6.0
Breakdown operating region
voltage, VBR 4.0 Forward
diffusion
2.0
region
VD(V) -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 VD(V)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Reverse leakage
-1.0
region
VF
-2.0
Reverse
breakdown -3.0
region
-4.0
* simplified diode I-V curve is applied
in engineering calculation.
-5.0

ID(A)
 Considerations in engineering calculation
When VD>VF, Forward operating region
 Voltage across silicon diode VD=VF =0.7V. 
 Voltage across germanium diode VD=VF =0.3V. 
 Any amount of current can flow through diode which is limited only by its maximum
 
power rating. IF(max)=Pmax/VF   
For example: if Pmax=300mW, IF(max)=300mW/0.7V=428.57mA

When VD<VF, Forward diffusion region

 no current flow, ID=0  diode resistance (V/ I) is infinity 
and diode is equivalent to an open circuit

When VD<VBR, Reverse leakage region

 no current flow, ID=0  diode resistance (V/ I) is infinity and diode is equivalent to
an open circuit

When VD>VBR, Reverse breakdown region

 For Zener diode, voltage across Zener diode VD=VBR=VZ. Any amount of current can flow
through Zener diode limited by 
IZM only.
 For other types of diode, voltage across diode VD=VBR.The diode can be damaged by
excessive avalanche current.
 Quiz
1. When a silicon diode is operating in forward operating region, what is
the voltage drop across it?
2. True or False? If a germanium diode is forward biased and operating in
forward operating region, the potential difference between its anode
and cathode is 0.7V.
3. True or False? When a silicon diode is forward biased and in operating
in forward diffusion region, no current flows through the diode, the
circuit is equivalent to a short circuit.
4. True or False? When a reverse voltage which is less then reverse
breakdown voltage is applied to a pn junction diode, the diode will be
damaged. The current in the circuit is maximum.
5. True or False? Avalanche current is caused by a very large forward
voltage applied to a diode.
6. True or False? If the reverse voltage is less then breakdown voltage, no
diode can be damaged and there is no current flowing through it.
 Temperature effect on diode operations
When temperature increase, more current
carriers are produced. This will increase the
Temperature effect on forward current flow without increasing its forward
conduction biased voltage.
As temperature increases, current will
ID(mA) TA=50C increase for a specified value of forward
TA=25C
voltage. e.g. from I1 to I2.
Temperature As temperature increases, voltage will
5.0 increases
decrease for a specified value of current. e.g.
4.0 Forward operating from V1 to V2.
region
3.0 I2 The forward voltage VF decreases by 2.5
mV for every 1C increase in junction
2.0
I1 Forward
temperature.
1.0 diffusion The diode resistance decreases (the
region
VD(V) gradient of the line becomes steeper) with
temperature increases. Why?
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

V2 V1
 Temperature effect on diode operations (cont’d)
Temperature effect on reverse
More current carriers are created when
conduction
the temperature increases. This will
increase the reverse current without
Breakdown
voltage, VBR
increasing its reverse biased voltage.
As temperature increases further, the
VD(V) -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 reverse current increases more rapidly.
The reverse current doubles for every
-1.0 10C increase in the junction temperature.
I1
-2.0
Reverse breakdown
TA=25C
region -3.0
2I1
-4.0
TA=35C
Temperature -5.0
increases

ID(A)
 Quiz
1. True or False? When temperature increases, the current flow of a diode
increases and the forward voltage of a diode is also increasing.
2. True or False? At same forward voltage, the forward current decreases
with temperature increases.
3. True or False? When temperature increases, the forward voltage
decreases in order to maintain the same forward current.
4. True or False? The diode resistance decreases with temperature
increases. It is because the more free electrons and holes are generated
by thermal energy, therefore, increases conductivity and decreases
resistivity.
5. True or False? When temperature decreases, the reverse current
increases due to minority carriers are created by thermal energy.
Characteristics of a Diode

Forward-bias voltage required to reach the

region of upward swing. It is typically of
the order of magnitude of 0.7 V for
commercially available silicon diodes and 0.3 V
for germanium diodes when rounded off to the
nearest tenths

Note that Reverse saturation current is in

order of 10nA(10x10-9) for Si diode and
1A(10-6) for Ge diode

58
Resistance levels of a Diode

See Text equation (1.7) for derivation

59
Mathematical expression of a Diode

 kVD   kVD 
   
 T   T 
ID  IS e  K   IS  IS e K 

Assume IS = 10 fA = 10 x 10-15 Amp ( f = femto = 10-15 )

and that at room temperature (see page 21 ) ( T K / k ) = 26 mV
Then forward curve of the diode can be written as

 VD 
 
 26mV   ID 
ID  10fA e    V  26mVlog
D e   Diode drop VD
10fA 

60
  kVD 
 Tk 
 dV
ID  IS e  1  Slope of diode curve rd  D
dID
  kVD 
 Tk 
   kVD 
 Tk 

1 d d  k   k
 1 
 
 ID  IS e  IS e  1  IS
rd dVD dVD   Tk T
    k
 

k
Tk

ID  IS 
k

I  ID  IS
Tk D
       (1)
11,600 11,600
k  (  1 for both Ge and Si)
 1
k 11,600
at room temperature, Tk  25   273  298     38.93
Tk 298
1 dI k
From equation (1),  D  I  38.93  ID
rd dVD Tk D
dVD 1 0.026 26mV
  rd   
dID 38.93  ID ID ID

Diode resistance rd

61
 Example: Calculate VD and ID in the following figure VD (mV )  26mV ln
ID
Hint:- use iteration method with the diode equation 10fA

 I 
VD  26mVloge  D  (1) ID
10fA  V=20V VD
20VD
ID  (2) R=0.5kW
0.5k
andsolving equation(1) and (2)byiterationmethodwehave
1. Take VD=0.7V use eqn(2) find ID=38.6mA
2. substitute ID=38.6mA in eqn(1) find VD =0.753V

VD (V) 0.7 0.753 0.753

ID (mA) 38.6 38.494 38.494

3. Take VD=0.753V use eqn(2) find ID=38.494mA

4. substitute ID=38.494mA in eqn(1) find VD =0.753V
5. Take VD=0.753V use eqn(2) find ID=38.494mA
Converge at VD=0.753V and ID=38.494mA Answer

62
Example: Use approximate method to solve V D and ID for the given
diode circuit, (a) if it is a Si diode, (b) if it is a Ge diode, (c) if it is
an ideal diode

ID
V V=20V
=10V VD
R =1k
R=0.5kW

(a) Si diode  VD  0.7V

10VD 100.7 9.3
 ID     9.3mA  Ans
1k 1k 1k

(b) Ge diode  VD  0.3V

10VD 100.3 9.7
 ID     9.7mA  Ans
1k 1k 1k

(c) Ideal diode  VD  0V

10VD 100
 ID    10mA  Ans
1k 1k

63
Example: Find Vo and IR for the given diode
circuits.

12  0.7  0.3
12  0.7  0.3  IR  5.6k IR   1.96mA
5.6k
Vo  IR  5.6k  1.96mA  5.6k  10.97V or Vo  12  0.7  0.3  11V

D2 is reverse - biased IR  0mA ThenVo  IR  5.6k  0  5.6k  0V

12 VD1 + VD2  Vo  0 + VD2  0  VD2  12V  Ans

Because there is no current through the diode,

voltage drop of the diode D1 is zero

64
 Diode Specifications

• Forward Voltage Drop (Vf) - specified at

the forward current (if). Typically 0.3 V for
Germanium and 0.7 V for Silicon.

• Leakage Current – specified at a voltage less than the breakdown

voltage. Leakage current is undesirable and will be present until
the breakdown voltage is reached. Junction diodes are intended
to operate below their breakdown voltage.

• Current Rating – determined primarily by the size of the diode

chip, material used, and configuration of the package. Average
current is used (not RMS current).
 Diode Specifications

• Minimum Diode Specifications

- Maximum reverse voltage - Max. reverse voltage that will not cause breakdown
- Rated forward current – Max. amount of average current permitted to flow in forward direction
- Maximum forward voltage drop – Max. forward voltage drop across diode @ indicated
- Maximum leakage current -
- Maximum reverse recovery time

• Switching
- The switching speed of a diode depends upon its
construction and fabrication.
- Generally, the smaller the chip the faster it switches (other
things being equal).
- The reverse recovery time, trr , is usually the limiting
parameter (trr is the time it takes a diode to switch from
ON to OFF).
 Family of diodes

1N4007
1N4003

1N4006
1N4001

1N4004

1N4005
1N4002
Symbol units
Rate

Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage

Working Peak Reverse Voltage
VRRM
50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 Volt
DC Blocking Voltage VRWM
VR

Non-Repetitive Peak Reverse

VRMS 60 120 240 480 720 1000 1200
Voltage Volt

RMS Reverse Voltage VR(RMS) 35 70 140 280 420 560 700 Volt

Average Rectified Forward

Current IO 1.0 Amp
(Single phase, resistive load,
60 Hz, TA = 25oC)
Non-Repetitive Peak Surge Current
(Surge applied at rated load) IFSM 30 (for 1 cycle) Amp

Operating and Storage Junction

Temperature Range TJ, Tstg 65 to 175 o
C
 Data sheet of diode
 Each semiconductor device is identified by a manufacturer’s
part number (e.g.1N4001)
 A standard numbering system begins with 1N followed by
number up to four digits. Some manufacturers label their
parts with a mixture of letters and numbers.
 Data sheet is important, because:
— It indicates whether or not a given diode can be used for specific
application.
— It establishes the operating limits of any circuit designed to use
the diode.
 Data sheet for different applications of diodes

Part number diode V RRM(V) IO(Amp) VF(V)

1N914 general purpose diode 75 75mA 1

1N4148 general purpose diode 75 75mA 1
1N5818 schottky diode 40 1 0.6
MBRD330L schottky 30 3 0.39
(Low VF )
1N6096 high current schottky 30 25 0.48
1N4001 silicon rectifier 50 1 0.7
1N4004 silicon rectifier 400 1 0.7
1N5401 silicon rectifier 50 3 0.7
1N5406 silicon rectifier 600 3 0.7

 Maximum power dissipation (PDmax) : The maximum power that can be dissipated by the diode. The power
dissipated by a diode in a circuit can be obtained by PD = VF x IF

 Maximum continuous forward current (IFmax) :The maximum current that the diode can continuously sustain
when forward biased without damage to the device.
 Forward voltage (VF) : VF = 0.7V for silicon diodes with forward current.
 Maximum reverse voltage (VRRM) : the maximum reverse biased voltage that a diode can withstand without
breakdown.
Diode Types
 Diode Types

Circuit symbol picture

pn junction diode
(general purpose diode)

Zener diode

Light Emitting Diode

(LED)

Schottky diode

Photo diode

75
 PN junction diode symbol & packaging
Symbol:

Packages:

 The current rating of a diode is directly proportional to its size.

 The metal casing is used as heat sink in high rating diodes.
 Each semiconductor device has a manufacturers specification sheet (or data sheet).
 The data sheet provides the user with information regarding the behaviour of the device under
different operating conditions.
 Diode circuits and its applications
Example1 A diode is connected in series with a resistor as shown in the diagram. Calculate the
current flowing in the circuit.
Silicon Solution:
360W Diode Step 1: Since VA>VK, diode is in forward operating
IS
A K region. Therefore VD=0.7V

Step 2: Apply Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL);

VR360 VD
+ VR640
EMF = Sum of Potential Differences
VS = VR360 + VD + VR640
640W
20V
VS
Step 3: According to Ohm’s Law
VR360=ISR360
VR640 =ISR640
Step 5: Find the current Is
Step 4: Substitute VS, VR360 and VR640 into KVL
VS  VD 20  0.7 equation
I S  
R360  R640 360  640 VS = ISR360 + ISR640 + 0.7
 I S  0.0193 A  19.3mA 20 = IS360 + IS640 + 0.7
 Exercise
A diode is connected in series with a resistor as shown in the diagram. Calculate the
current IS and voltage across diode VD, voltage across resistors VR360, VR640 in the circuit.

Solution:
Silicon
Diode Step 1: Since VK>VA, diode is reverse biased, (open circuit).
360W
IS Therefore no current flow in the circuit IS=0 A
K A

Step 2: According to Ohm’s Law VR360=ISR360=0  360 =0 V

VR360 VD
+
VR640
VR640=ISR640=0  640 =0 V
640W voltage equals zero, resistors are considered as
20V short circuit
VS

Step 3: As VR360 and VR640 are 0 V, the voltage at cathode of

diode is equal to the positive terminal of voltage source,
i.e. VK=20V. The voltage at anode is equal to the negative
terminal of voltage source, i.e. the reference point of
the circuit,  so VA=0 V.
VD = VK- VA= 20 - 0 =20 V
 Example 2 Solution:
Step 1: According to the current direction
Calculate the current flowing to determine the bias condition of D1 and D2
through the 2 kΩ resistor.
D1: As I1 flows from its anode to cathode, D1 is
VF = 0.7 V forward biased, VD1=0.7V (VS>0.7V)
2kW
IS
D2: As I2 flows from its cathode to anode, D2 is
reverse biased, I2=0. Because D2 is parallel with
I2 I1 D1, they share same voltage, VD2=VD1=0.7V

Silicon Silicon Because I2=0, D2 can be removed:

VS 15V Diode Diode
D1 IS 2kW
D2

I1

VS 15V D2
D1

So I1=IS
 Example 2 (cont’d)

IS 2kW
Step 2: Apply KVL
I1 EMF = Sum of Potential Differences
VR2K VD2 15 V = VR2K + VD1

VD1
VS
VR2K=15-0.7=14.3V
15V
D1

Step 3: Because VR2K=ISR2K

IS=VR2K/R2KΩ =14.3/2KΩ
=0.00715A =7.15mA
Practical consideration in choosing a pn junction diode
 Studying the practical situation and determine the
possible maximum reverse applied voltage of
diode.
 From the data sheet of diode, find a suitable rated
reverse breakdown voltage VBR as either VRRM, or
VRWM, or VR or VRMM.
 This reverse voltage rating is important. It helps us
to choose the right type of diode for our circuit.
 Example 1  Silicon diode is operating in forward operating
region, hence VD=0.7V
Determine the type of diode
 If the 90V supply-voltage polarity is accidentally
needed for the circuit. (Hints: reversed, the diode will be connected in reverse
check for VRMM, IF(max) & PD(max)) bias. Its maximum reverse breakdown voltage
VRRM must at least be 90V. Otherwise, the diode
can be damaged.
 Diode data sheet
30 W shows that only 1N4004 & 1N5406 satisfy this
condition VRRM  90V.
 The average forward current IO is also an
+ important rating when
Silicon choosing a diode. This is the maximum DC
90 V Diode VD
forward current that the diode can handle. If this
is exceeded, the diode can be damaged.
Example 2 Determine the type of diode needed for the circuit

 Apply KVL and Ohm’s Law:

ID 30 W
90=ID30+0.7

The diode operating current is

ID = (90V - 0.7V)/30Ω = 2.98 A.
+
Silicon
Diode
 Refer to diode data sheet,
90 V
Diode 1N4004 can take in 1A of current; hence
it is not suitable.

 Diode 1N5406 can take up to 3A of forward

current; it can be used and chosen for this
application.

 Another important rating is the maximum

forward dissipated power of diode: PDmax

PDmax >PD = ID x VF
=2.98  0.7 = 2.086 W
 Application of a pn junction diode
PN junction diodes are used in a rectifier bridge

D1  Current flows from positive source terminal to

negative source terminal.
D2 +  D2, D3 are forward biased with voltage drop 0.7V and
_ current can flow through them.
RL
20 V VL
D3  Current flows through the load resistor RL from top
+  bottom
_
D4
 D1, D4 are reverse biased, current cannot flow
through them. D1, D4 can be removed from the circuit.
 The load voltage can be determined:
EMF = Sum of Potential Differences
20 V = VD2 + VD3 + VL
20 V =0.7 V + 0.7 V + VL
VL = 20 - 0.7 - 0.7
=18.6 V
 Application of a pn junction diode (cont’d)
 If the supply voltage polarity is reversed, D 1 & D4 will
be forward biased with voltage drop 0.7V. D 2 & D3
will be reverse biased.
D1
 D2, D3 can be removed from the circuit.

D2  Current flow through the load resistor RL is still from

+
+ top  bottom
RL  The load voltage can be determined by KVL
20 V
D3 VL EMF = Sum of Potential Differences
_
20 V = VD1 + VD4 + VL
_
D4 20 V =0.7 V + 0.7 V + VL
VL = 20-0.7-0.7 = 18.6 V

When the supply voltage polarity is reversed:

• The rectifier bridge circuit maintains the same direction of current flow through the load.
•Load voltage remains the same value.
 Schottky Diode
 The Schottky diode is different from the ordinary
A high-speed diode with very pn junction diodes because it has a metal
little junction capacitance. material in place of the p-type material.
 Depletion layer exists only inside the n-type
Circuit symbol: material and not in the metal. So the depletion
layer of Schottky diode is thinner than of a p-n
junction.
 The barrier potential of a metal-semiconductor
Gold Leaf Metal junction is smaller than that of a pn junction. The
Contact (Anode)
forward voltage VF of a Schottky diode is about
0.1- 0.2 V.
 The junction capacitance of a Schottky diode is
Metal - Aluminium smaller than that of a p-n junction.
 Because of its small junction capacitance,
Insulating Layer
-Silicon Oxide Schottky diodes are used in high frequency and
fast switching applications and applications
Heavily doped n-
where there is a need of a lower forward voltage
type semiconductor
K - Cathode material drop across the diode.
 Schottky diode I-V curve
Schottky diodes normally operate in the forward bias operation.

Schottky Diode  Schottky diode has lower

I-V Characteristic forward voltage.
 The reverse saturation current
ID
is larger than that of a pn
junction diode.
PN junction
 The reverse breakdown voltage
Diode I-V
Characteristic of a Schottky diode is smaller
than that of a pn junction diode.
-Vd
VD  Schottky diode is used in high
0.1 V frequency applications such as
microwave circuits where fast
switching speeds and low noise
are required.
Larger Reverse
Saturation Current
-ID
 Light emitting diode (LED)

Circuit symbol: Picture:

An LED or Light Emitting Diode is a special type of diode that lights up

when a forward bias voltage is applied.

When forward bias, holes and free electrons recombined. Energy from the
free electrons is released in the form of light and heat as they drop into the
valence band.

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics curve is similar to a pn junction

diode. But its VF is between 1 V to 3 V.

The VBR is between  3 V to  10 V.

 Light emitting diode (LED)-cont’d
When used in a circuit, the LED needs to have a current limiting resistor RS
in series connection as shown in the diagram. This is to protect the LED
from excessive forward current. Its resistance is

Vout peak   VF Example

RS 
I Fmax  If the output peak voltage is 18 V, the maximum
forward current of the LED is 30 mA with forward
RS
voltage is 2.0 V. Determine the series resistance.
Vout(peak) IF
Solution:
Driving
VF
Circuit
RS = (18 V - 2.0 V) / 30 mA
= 533 

Choose a series resistor with 560.

 (a) Power indicator

(b) Signal indicator

Example 2: Seven-segment LED (common anode) displays

+5V

+5V
 Diode Application Problems 1
In Figure below, the switch encoder circuit, each diode has a forward voltage of 0.7V.
a) Determine the voltages that will be generated at output terminals at A, B and C for each of the switch
positions 1, 2 and 3.
b) What would happen to the outputs at switch positions 1, 2, and 3 if diode D1 were to open (faulty)
permanently?

+ 5V
Inputs Outputs
Switch position A B C
R1 R2 R3
510  510  510  1
A +5V 0.7V 0.7V
B
2
C 0.7V +5V 0.7V
D5
D3 D4
D1 D2
3
0.7V +5V +5V
2 3
1
 Diode Application Problems 2
This circuit is used as a ‘Stop-Go’ indicator + 4.5 V
R1 = 210
and has the following specifications for its
LEDs: Max. forward current (IF) = 38mA, Max.
forward voltage (VF)= 2.5 V, Max reverse D1 (VF = 0.7 V)
voltage (VR) = 20 V - 4.5 V (VR = 30 V)
(a) Which of the bi-colour LEDs will be
‘ON’ when the input voltage is 4.5V and Green
LED
which will be ON when the input voltage is -
4.5V? Green, Red
Red
(b) A p-n junction diode (D1) has been LED
included across R1 so that when the input R2 = 210
voltage goes positive this diode will bypass
the additional current- limiting resistor R1.
When the input voltage is negative, D1 is 1. When input voltage is +4.5V, the green LED
will be turned on:
reversing biased and therefore both R1
and R2 will limit the value of series current. +4.5=VD1+VLED+VR2
Which LED will be brighter? Why? +4.5=0.7+2.5+ILEDR2
Green
(c ) Calculate the value of the current that
ILED=(4.5-0.7 -2.5)/210=6.19mA
flows in the green and red LEDs.
 Diode Application Problems 2 (cont’d)

R1 = 210
+ 4.5 V
2. When input voltage is -4.5V, the red LED will be
turned on:
D1 (VF = 0.7 V)
(VR = 30 V)
- 4.5 V 4.5=VLED+VR1+VR2
+ Green 4.5=2.5+ILED(R1+R2)
LED
ILED=(4.5 -2.5)/(210+210)=4.76mA
Red
LED
R2 = 210
Power Diodes
 Switch  Realizations‐ Power  Diode
Anode (A)
•A  passive  switch
i
•Single‐quadrant  switch
Anode (A) i
•Can  conduct  positive  on‐state
current
ON
p •can  block  negative  off‐state
Cathode (K)
n voltage
OFF
•provided  that  the  intended
v on‐state  and  the  off‐state
Cathode (K) operating points  lie  on  the
diode  i‐v characteristic,  then
switch  can
be  realized  using  a  diode

• Passive  means  no  active  means  of  control

• Device  conducts  in  forward  direction  in  response  to  positive
  forward voltages
• Devices  turns  off  with  negative  forward  voltage
 Power  Diode  Overview

• Diode
Anode (A) - Minority  carrier  device
i - Passively controlled  device
- Controlled by external circuitry

•Forward  Bias  to  turn  on

Cathode (K)
•Reverse  Bias  to  turn  off
- Relatively low on state conduction losses
Diodes - Physical Implementation
 Power  Diode  i‐v  C/Cs
• When diode is forward biased, it conducts current with a small forward
voltage (Vf) across it (0.2-3V)
• When reversed (or blocking state), a negligibly small leakage current (uA
to mA) flows until the reverse breakdown occurs.
• Diode should not be operated at reverse voltage greater than Vbreakdown

breakdown
 Reverse Recovery

• When a diode is switched quickly from forward to reverse bias, it continues

to conduct due to the minority carriers which remains in the p-n junction.

• The minority carriers require finite time, i.e, trr (reverse recovery time) to
recombine with opposite charge and neutralise.

• Effects of reverse recovery are increase in switching losses, increase in

voltage rating, over-voltage (spikes) in inductive loads
 Typical  Power  Diodes

Typical  medium  power  diode

Power  diode  mounted  on  an  air‐cooled  heat  sink

 Types of Power Diodes
• Line frequency (general purpose/ Standard  recovery):
– On state voltage: very low (below 1V)
– Large reverse recovery time trr (about 25us) (very slow response)
– Very high current ratings (up to 5kA)
– Very high voltage ratings(5kV)
– Used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications such as rectifiers
– Often used in low speed applications (rectifiers & converters). They can operate 1KHz
• Fast recovery
– Very low reverse recovery time trr (<1us).
– Power levels at several hundred volts and several hundred amps
– Normally used in high frequency circuits (such as choppers, inverters)
• Schottky
– pn junction is eliminated. A thin metal film is placed directly instead. The metal is
anode and the semiconductor is cathode, leading to:
• A majority carrier device with high efficiency and switching frequency
• Essentially  no  recovered  charge (much smaller turn-off times; no reverse recovery current)
– Very low forward voltage drop (typical 0.3V)
– Limited reverse blocking voltage (50-100V)
– Used in low voltage, high current application such as switched mode power supplies
(often used as feedback and freewheeling diodes).
 Power Diode Models
• The static or idealized model
• When dynamic behavior of diode circuits are of interest, for
instance, when the behavior of dynamic current sharing in
series and parallel connected diodes at turn-on and -off, or
when the reverse recovery current of a diode flows through a
transistor, a dynamic model of the diode should be used.
– In low frequency applications (50 Hz), incorporation of dynamic model
parameters in the analyses will hardly show any difference. However when the
operating frequency is several 10s or 100s of kHz, the dynamic model would
indicate significant changes from the behaviour from idealized models.
Diode  Switching  Characteristics Simulation‐
Dbreak (For  Your  Information)

1.0A

0.5A

0A

10.0us 10.4us 10.8us

I(D1)
Time
 Diode  Switching  Characteristics
Simulation‐
1N4002  General  Purpose  (For Your 
Information)

40A

0A
0A

-40A -40A

-80A -71A
10.00us 10.25us 10.50us 10.75us 10.624us 10.700us 10.800us
I(D1) I(D1)
Time Time
 Diode  Switching  Characteristics
Simulation‐D1N4148‐Fast  Recovery 
(For Your  Information)

1.0A
200mA

0.5A
0A

0A -200mA

10.0us 10.2us 10.4us 10.6us10.8us 10.583us 10.600us 10.620us

I(D1) I(D1)
Time Time
 Examples of Commercial Power Diodes

part number Rated max voltage Rated vag current VF(typical) tr(max)

Fast recovery rectifiers

1N3913 400V 30A 1.1V 400ns
SD453N25S20PC 2500V 400A 2.2V 20μs
Ultra-fast recovery rectifiers
MUR815 150V 8A 0.975V 35ns
MUR1560 600V 15A 1.2V 6ns
RHRU100120 1200V 100A 2.6V 60ns
Schottky rectifiers
MBR6030L 30V 60A 0.48V
444CNQ045 45V 440A 0.69V
30CPQ150 150V 30A 1.19V

Data sheet
 General  Comments  on  Power  Diodes

•Inverse  Relationship  between  Blocking  voltage/Forward  current  and

reverse  recovery  time/forward  voltage  drop
•Generally,  Diode  turn  on  fast  enough  to  be  considered  ideal
•Device  turn  off  generally  considered  ideal  but  can  effect  circuit
operation
 Diode  turn  off  means  negative  current  needed  to  remove
stored charge
• This  charge  removal  is  required  for  device  turn  off
•In  some  instances,  this  negative  current  and  delay  can  have  an
effect  on  circuit  operation
•Can  result  in  inductive  ringing  (particularly  when  fast 
recovery used  in  an  inductive  environment)
• When  required,  series  diodes  add  to  blocking  capability
Small Signal Model Of Diodes
 Small Signal Model

• Small signal, biased operation

110
 Diode Model

• As a resistor with value equal to reciprocal of

the slope of the “i-v” curve
• Linearization around bias I D point
I S e vD /(VnVD Tand
)
time
varying
vD (t )  signal
VD  vd (vtd)(t)
 isiDsuperimposed.
(t )  I S e (V  v (t ) /( nV )
D d T

• Current due
v
to V D: vd
d
 1  I D (t )  I D (1  )
nVT nVT
• Approx.

111
Small Signal Approximation

112
 Equivalent circuit model

• For small changes around

bias point Q is reciprocal of
tangent :  iD 
rd  1 /  
 vD  i  I
D D

• VD0 is the intercept of the

tangent on the vD axis
1
iD  (v D  v D 0 )
rD
113
Separate DC and small signal analysis

114
 Practical Diode Circuit
• Diode charges
capacitor.
• The diode is assumed
ideal. It will only
conduct when vI is
more than vo

115
 Rectifier
• Voltage and current
waveforms in the peak
rectifier circuit with CR
 T.
• The diode is assumed
ideal.

116
Basic Limiting Ckts

117
Zener Diodes
 Zener diode
The arrow is associated with the p-type material
Circuit symbol: and the “crooked” bar indicates the n-type
material.

 Zener diode is another type of p-n junction device. Unlike a general purpose pn junction diode, a
Zener diode is not damaged when operates in the reverse breakdown region.

 Zener diodes are designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region.

 Zener diode conducts current in both forward and reverse bias direction. But it is rarely used in
forward biased application.
 Zener Diode
• Zener diodes operate in the breakdown region.
• Zener diodes have a specified voltage drop when
they are used in reverse bias.
• Every pn junction (i.e. diode) will break down in
reverse bias if enough voltage is applied.
• Zener diodes are operated in reverse bias for
normal voltage regulation.
• Able to maintain a nearly constant voltage under
conditions of widely varying current.
 Zener Diode I-V Graph
A K

Zener characteristics and parameters

•Notice that as the reverse voltage VR is increased, the leakage current
remains essentially constant until the breakdown voltage VZ (Zener
voltage).
 Zener diode I-V characteristics
ID(mA)

5.0

4.0 Forward
operating region
3.0
Zener voltage, VZ 2.0
Forward
1.0 diffusion
VR(V) region VD(V)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

IZK
Reverse leakage VF=0.7V
region
Reverse  The forward biased characteristic of a Zener
breakdown IZT diode
region is similar to that of a general purpose pn
junction diode.
IZM
 The forward knee voltage VF for a silicon
Zener diode is about 0.7 V.
IR(A)
 Zener diode I-V characteristics (cont’d)
 When VR<VZ, Zener diode is in reverse leakage region, the reverse leakage current is very small
and can be neglected.
 The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener diode, V Z, is called the
Zener voltage.
 When VR>VZ, Zener diode is in reverse breakdown region and it can conduct. The reverse current
is in the range from IZK to IZM, while keeps the voltage drop constant as V Z.

zener voltage, VZ
VR(V)
The minimum current needed to maintain a
voltage near Zener voltage VZ is called the
IZK
Reverse leakage knee current IZK.
region
Reverse The maximum current that the Zener diode
breakdown IZT can handle before being damaged is given
region by IZM.
IZT is the testing current of Zener diode.
IZM

IR
 Circuit analysis for Zener diodes
 When analysing circuits containing Zener diodes, it is
important to identify which diodes are forward biased and
which are operating in Zener breakdown, so that the
potential across the Zener diodes can be determined.

 If Zener diode is forward biased, the voltage drop across the

zener diode is 0.7V for silicon Zener diode.

 If Zener diode is reverse biased and operating in reverse

breakdown region, the voltage drop across the Zener diode
is Zener voltage VZ which is normally given in the question.
 Types of Breakdowns
• Zener breakdown - the electric field near the
junction becomes large enough to excite valence
electrons directly into the conduction band.
• Avalanche breakdown –minority carriers are
accelerated in the electric field near the junction to
sufficient energies that they can excite valence
electrons through collisions.

Note: The predominance of one breakdown over the

other depends on the room temperature.
 Zener Diode Specifications

• Basic Parameters
– Zener Voltage (VZ) – common range, 3.3 V to 75 V
– Tolerance of Zener Voltage – commonly 5 to 10%
– Test current (IZ) – correspondent to Vz
– Power handling capability – ¼, ½, 1, 5, 10, 50 W
 Diode circuit analysis
A Zener diode is connected in series with a general purpose diode and a
Example 1resistor. Both are made of silicon. Calculate the voltages across the Zener
diode and the general purpose diode. Also determine the current flowing
through them.

Step 1: Determine the biasing conditions of both diodes.

360 W • pn junction diode is forward biased, VD =0.7V
• Zener diode is forward biased, the voltage
+ across Zener diode is Vzener =0.7V
+ VR

5V VD
IS -
Step 2: Apply KVL in the circuit loop
EMF = Sum of Potential Differences
- + 5 V = IS x R360 + VD + Vzener
Vzener 5 V = IS x 360 Ω + 0.7 V + 0.7 V
IS = (5 V - 0.7 V - 0.7 V) / 360 Ω
= 0.01A = 10 mA
 Diodes in parallel
 If more than one diodes are connected in parallel, the voltage across the parallel branch will
be determined by the smallest voltage in that branch (i.e. easiest path for current to flow).
 Current always flows through the easiest path.

Some examples:
(a) Three Zener diodes with different Zener voltage are in parallel
If Zener voltage for Z1, Z2 and Z3 are 5.1V, 4.7V and 3.1V
respectively, current will flow through Z3 only, then Z1 & Z2 can be
removed:

IZ1 + IZ2 + IZ3 + IZ1 + IZ2 + IZ3 +

Z1 Z2 Z3 Z1 Z2 Z3

- - - - - -

IZ1=IZ2=0 A, Voltage across Z1, Z2, Z3 are same as

3.1V
 Diodes in parallel (cont’d)
(b) One Zener diode and one pn junction diode are in parallel. PN junction silicon diode is
forward biased and Zener diode is reverse biased with zener voltage 5.1V.

According to the direction of current flow in the circuit (I1 and I2),
• PN junction diode is forward biased with voltage 0.7V.
• Zener diode is reverse biased with reverse Zener voltage VZ = 5.1V.
•Therefore current will flow through D1 only, then Z1 can be removed.
+
I2 + I1 + I2 + I1
D1 D1

Z1 Z1
5.1V 5.1V
-
- - -
I2=0 A
Voltage across D1 and Z1 are same as 0.7 V
 Diodes in parallel (cont’d)
(c) One silicon diode and one germanium diode are in parallel. Both are forward biased.

Because silicon diode forward voltage is 0.7 V and germanium diode forward voltage is
0.3 V, current will flow through germanium diode only and Silicon diode can be removed.

+ + I2 + I1 +
I2 I1
Germanium Germanium
Silicon diode Silicon diode
diode diode D2 D1
D2 D1

- - - -

I2=0 A
Voltage across D1 and D2 are same as 0.3V
 Diodes in parallel (cont’d)
(d) Two pn junction silicon diodes are in parallel. One is forward biased, another one is
reverse biased.
D1 is reverse biased, there is no current flow in D1 branch, i.e. I1=0.
D2 is forward biased with 0.7V voltage drop. Current will flow through D 2 only. The
circuit can be redraw as:

I2 + + I2 + I1 +
I1

D1
D2 D1 D2

- - - -

I1=0 A
Voltage across D1 and D2 are same as 0.7V
Example:
Three Zener diodes are connected in parallel with Zener voltages V Z1= 5.1 V, VZ2= 10 V and
VZ3= 15 V respectively. Calculate the voltage across the 5 kΩ resistor VR and current IS .
5 kW
IS

IZ1 + IZ2 + IZ3 +

1. Because VZ1<VZ2<VZ3, current will flow
VR through Z1 only , then Z2 & Z3 can be
removed.
20 V
Z2
2. From Zener diode I-V curve, we can see that
Z3
Z1 when Z1 broke down at VZ1, Z2 & Z3 are still in
reverse leakage region, therefore IZ2=0, IZ3=0.
- - -
3. Voltage across Z1 is VZ1=5.1V
ID (mA) 4. Calculate voltage across 5 kΩ resistor VR
VZ3 VZ2 VZ1 0 VD (V)
VR (V)
Apply KVL: 20=VR+VZ1
B
VR=20-VZ1=20-5.1=14.9V
5. Calculate IS
Reverse IZ1
A IS=VR/5KΩ=14.9/5KΩ=2.98mA
Breakdown
Region

IR (mA)
 Exercise
In the circuit below, there are three
diodes in parallel. Zener diode reverse
breakdown voltage is 3.1V and 5.1V for Z1
and Z2, determine current IS, I1, I2, I3 and
voltage drop across each diode.
1. D1 is a pn junction diode and reverse biased,
I3=0, open circuit. D1 can be removed.
2. Both Zener diode Z1 and Z2 are reverse biased.
Because VZ1<VZ2, current will flow through Z1
only, I2=0, then Z2 can be removed.
3. Voltage across Z1, Z2 and D1 are same: VZ1=
VZ2=VD1 =3.1V
4. Calculate voltage across 5 kΩ resistor VR

5 kW
Apply KVL: 20 =VR+VZ1
IS
VR= 20-VZ1= 20-3.1= 16.9V
I1 + I2 + I3 +
5. Calculate IS
VR
IS=VR/5KΩ=16.9/5KΩ=3.38mA
20 V
Z2 D1 6. I1=IS=3.38mA
Z1

- - -
 Zener Diode Applications
• Can serve as a “Voltage Regulator” when placed in
parallel across a load to be regulated.
 Zener diode application
The common application of zener diode is Voltage regulator as
Zener voltage (VZ) can be fairly constant over a wide reverse current
range.

In order for the Zener diode to operate in the Zener breakdown region,
the reverse current IZ must be greater than the knee current IZK, but less
than the maximum allowed current IZM, so that the power rating PZ(MAX) of
the Zener diode is not exceeded.
I I
IZK  Z  ZM

PZ(MAX) ≥ (VZ x IZ)

 Zener diode application (cont’d)
Example 1: In the circuit below, the Zener diode 1N961B has the following specifications: I ZK = 0.25
mA, IZM = 38 mA,
IZT = 20 mA, VZ = 10 V, PMAX = 400 mW
Select a suitable value for the resistor R S, if the input voltage Vin is 15 V and the load
resistance RL = 500 Ω .
RS There are three parts in Zener voltage
IS regulator circuit: power source, voltage
regulator and load.
IZ IL
VRS +
 Zener diode is reverse biased,
VZ=10V
Vin VZ RL VRL
RS is used to protect the Zener from
- excessive power disspation if the load
resistor were accidentally removed. i.e.
IL=0. According to KCL, IS=IZ+IL, then IS=IZ.
Power Source Voltage Regulator Load
When IL=0, the current flows through
RS can be found by KVL and Ohm’s Law: Vin=VRS+VZ=ISRS+VZ, Zener diode is maximum,
15=38mARS+10 RS=(15-10)/38mA=131.58 Ω IZ=IS=IZM=38mA
Choose the closest standard resistance value larger than
131.58 Ω 150Ω or 180 Ω
 Solution:
Exercise 1. Find source current IS by KVL and Ohm’s Law:
20=VRS+VZ
VRS=20-VZ=20-10=10V
In the circuit below, the Zener diode has the following
specifications: Calculate IS:
IZK = 0.25 mA, IZM = 38 mA, VZ = 10 V, IS=VRS/RS=10/500Ω=20mA
PMAX = 400 mW. Vin=20V, RS=500 Ω 2. In order to use Zener diode as a voltage regulator, the
Find the minimum load resistance can be used in this reverse current through Zener diode must be within the
circuit and the power dissipated by Zener diode when range IZK~IZM.
minimum load resistance is applied. 3. According to KCL
IS=IZ+IL, the source current is constant.
4. When the minimum load resistance applied, it will draw
RS more current from IS, IZ will be reduced.
IS
5. To maintain Zener voltage, the required minimum
IZ IL current through Zener diode is IZK, therefore
VRS +
IL=IS-IZK =20-0.25=19.75mA
Vin VRL
VZ RL 6. Because RL is in parallel with zener diode,
VRL=VZ=10V
-
RL(min)=VRL/IL=10/19.75mA=506.3Ω
7. PZ=VZIZK=10 0.25mA=2.5mW
 Summary
1. The knee voltage for a forward biased silicon diode (VF) is 0.7V and is 0.3V for a
germanium diode.
2. Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variation than silicon
diodes. Therefore germanium diodes are less popular then silicon
3. A silicon diode will conduct current when the forward biased potential reaches
0.7V.
4. A Zener diode is operated in reverse breakdown region of the diode
characteristic curve. It is used as a voltage regulator.
5. The Zener diode maintains a fairly constant voltage across its output provided
that the current flowing through it is between IZK and IZM .
6. When a Zener diode is forward biased, it has the same forward operating
characteristics as a normal pn junction diode.
 Summary (cont’d)
7. Diode Circuit Analysis:
 Find the voltage polarity across the diode, and use it to find the region of operation
(FB or RB) of the diode.
 Refer to the ideal diode I-V Characteristic,
Forward Biased (FB): VA>VK
If VAK  VF (Forward Diffusion Region),
 VD = VAK and ID = 0 A
If VAK  VF (Forward Operating Region),
 VD = VF (0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge)
Reverse Biased (RB): VK>VA
If VKA  VBR (Reverse Leakage Region),
 VD = VKA and ID = 0 A
If VKA  VBR (Reverse Breakdown Region),  other diodes can be
damaged
but for Zener diode VD = VZ

 Apply KVL to determine the voltage across the resistor (V R) that connected in series
with the diode.
 Apply Ohm’s Law on the resistor (linear device) to calculate the current flows
through the resistor ( IR = VR / R).
 Summary (cont’d)

8. The barrier potential of the Schottky diode is about 0.1 to

0.2V
9. Schottky diode used metal material in place of the p-type
material.
10. Schottky diode is used in high frequency and fast switching
applications

----The end of chapter 2----

 Semiconductor Diode
Applications
1. Diode in dc circuits
2. Diode in ac circuits
3. Half-wave and Full-wave rectifiers
4. Wave-shaping Circuits Design
1. Diode clipping and clamping circuits
2. Wave shaping circuits design
3. Frequency effect on the clampers
5. Zener Regulator circuits
 Diode in DC Circuits

p n
anode cathode

Diode is an active device that will conduct (let the current pass
through) whenever it’s anode “p” is more positive than it’s
cathode “n”, called forward bias.
And when it conducts, VD = 0.7V diode drop appears with anode
more positive than cathode.
+ 0.7 -
+12 -8
20  80  20  Si + 0.7 -
+12 0
I  0.7 
I + 0.7 -
+12 +6
10 V ( pp) 10 V ( pp)
+ 0.7 -
0 -12
resistor will conduct diode will conduct one + 0.7 -
-8 -12
both direction for ac (forward) direction for
voltage ac voltage 143
Unlike the resistor, it will not conduct (no current through the diode)
if anode is zero or more negative than it’s cathode, called reverse
bias.
Because it doesn't conduct it becomes an open circuit making I D = 0,
therefore 0V drop at 20 so that diode drop is 10V (now anode is
more negative than cathode)

- 20 +
-8 +12
- 12 +
20  80 20   10V  0 +12
-6+
+6 +12
I  0
I - 12 +
10 V 10 V
-12 0
-4+
reverse bias reverse bias no -12 -8
reverse current current in diode
in resistor
144
Example:
Using approximate model of diode (Si drop V D=0.7V and Ge drop VD=0.3V),
(a) Determine the VO1 and VO2 for the network shown below in Fig. 1(a) and
determine the current I for the following circuit in Fig 1(b).

4.7 k  20 V
12 V
Si Si
VO1 Ge VO2 10  I
20 
FIG.1 (a) FIG.1 (b)

1.( a) VO1  12  0.7  11.3V

VO2  0.3 V

20  0.7
1.(b) I  0.965A
20

145
Example:
Using approximate model of diode, determine the V 1 and V2 for the network shown
below and also the value of Vo

4.7 k  Si Vo
10V 
 V1 
2.2 k V2


 5V

KVL  10  ( 5)  I( 4.7k)  0.7  I(2.2k)

14.3
15  0.7  I(6.9k)  I   2.07mA
6.9k
V1  I  4.7k  2.07mA  4.7k  9.73V
V2  I  2.2k  2.07 mA  2.2k  4.55V
Vo  ( 5)  V2  4.55  Vo  4.55  5  0.45V

146
Example:
Using ideal model of diode (forward voltage drop=0V) , determine the V o
(1) When the input is +100V and (2) When the input is -100V

(1) When the input is +100V, see below, V o=+50V

Ideal Diodes= 0V forward drop

D1 D2 D1 D2
+ + +
2.2k Vo=+50V
ideal 2.2k
100V diodes
vo 100V vo 100V
- 50V +
R3 -
- 2.2k -
2.2k 2.2k R3 2.2k 2.2k 2.2k 2.2k
R2 R2
R1 R1

(2) When the input is -100V , see below, V o=+50V

Ideal Diodes= 0V forward drop

D1 D2 - D1 D2 -
- 2.2k Vo=+50V
ideal 100V
2.2k 100V
100V diodes
vo vo - 50V +

-
R3 +

V
-1
+

50
+ 2.2k

00

+
2.2k 2.2k

V
2.2k 2.2k R3 2.2k 2.2k

+
R2 R2
R1 R1

147
 Diode in AC Circuits

• Because the voltage input is ac (alternate current) voltage, the diode will conduct
whenever it’s anode is more positive than cathode

• and will open whenever it’s anode is more negative than cathode.

• Usually irrespective of the input voltage, 0.7V forward drop model will be used
when it conducts.

148
 Applications of diode
PN junction diode is commonly used in the dc power supply.
What is dc power supply?
An electronic system which convert the ac energy provided by the wall outlet to
dc energy.
 What are the subsystems in dc power supply?
transformer, rectifier, filter, voltage regulator

A B C D E
Transformer Rectifier Filter Voltage
regulator

vA
vC
Point A: Point C:
t t

vD
vB Point D:
t
Point B:
t vE
Point E:
 Rectifier
Rectifier: a circuit that converts ac to pulsating dc.
Types of rectifier:
1) half-wave, and
2) full-wave bridge rectifier

Half-wave rectifier

Positive half-wave rectifier Negative half-wave rectifier

vd vd
+ – – +
+ +

vin R vo vin R vo

- –

During the positive half-cycle of Vin, During the negative half-cycle of Vin,
diode conducts current. diode conducts current.
 Half-wave and Full-wave rectifiers
Half-wave rectifier
At positive cycle of the ac wave D1 will conduct and produce VR
D1
Vs n:1=Vs:V VR
+ + R
+ 0.7 - +
Vs V
I VR
0 t - - 0 t
-
V  0.7
I VR  I  R
R

At negative cycle of the ac wave D1 will open and VR=0

D1 VR
Vs n:1=Vs:V

- - R
- V+
Vs V 0V0 t
0 t I
+ +

I0 VR  I  R  0

For full cycle of the ac wave, D1 will produce half-wave output voltage VR across “R”
which is now dc voltage
151
 vd
Positive half-wave rectifier
+
 Input signal Vin is an ac signal, no dc –+
component.
vin R vo
 Output signal is a positive pulsating dc
signal, contains dc component. +– -
No dc
vin component or
 During positive cycle, Vin>0, diode is
average value=0
forward biased and can conduct current.
This current flows through the load R and
generates output voltage Vo=Vin–Vd t
0
There is dc
 During negative cycle, Vin<0, diode is vo (average)
reverse biased, no current flow. component which
Therefore Vo=0R=0V can be found by
0 t formula
 According to KVL: Vin=Vd+Vo, voltage drop
across diode: Vd=Vin-Vo vd

0 t
 Positive half-wave rectifier (cont’d)
vd Vin(P) is the peak value of input signal
+ -
+ Vo(P) is the peak value of output signal
–  Calculation of V(DC): V(DC) is related to Vo(P)
vin R vo If diode is ideal, Vd=VF=0V, then
+ Vo(P)=Vin(P)
-
vin V(DC) =V(AVE) = 0.318 Vo(P) = 0.318Vin(P)
Vin(P)
If diode is simplified silicon model ,
Vd=VF=0.7V
0 t Then, Vo(P) =Vin(P) –0.7
V(DC) =V(AVE) =0.318 Vo(P)
vo
V(DC) = 0.318(Vin(P) –0.7)
Vo(P)
 During negative cycle, diode is reverse biased.
The maximum amount of reverse voltage that a
0 t diode will be exposed to is called peak inverse
vd
voltage (PIV) .
t
0 PIV= Vin(P) (PIV is positive value)
 Negative half-wave rectifier +
+ vd
 Input signal is ac signal, no d.c.
component vin R vo
 Output signal is negative pulsating dc + -
signal, contains dc component.

 During positive cycle, Vin>0, diode is No dc component

reverse biased, no current flow. vin or average
Therefore Vo=0R=0V value=0

 During negative cycle, Vin<0, diode is t

0
forward biased and can conduct
current. This current flows through the There is dc
vo
load R and generates output voltage (average)
Vo=–(Vin–Vd) component which
0
can be found by
 According to KVL: Vin=Vd+Vo, voltage t
formula
across diode: Vd=Vin–Vo vd

0 t
 Negative half-wave rectifier (cont’d)
vd
- + Vin(P) is the peak value of input signal
+
+ Vo(P) is the peak value of output signal
vin R  Calculation of V(DC): V(DC) is related to Vo(P)
vo
If diode is ideal, Vd= VF =0V
– -
vin Vo(P) = –Vin(P)
Vin(P) V(DC) = V(AVE)= 0.318Vo(P) = – 0.318Vin(P)

If diode is simplified silicon model ,

t
Vd=VF=0.7V
vo Then, Vo(P) = –(Vin(P) –0.7)
V(DC)
V(DC) =V(AVE) = 0.318Vo(P)
= – 0.318(Vin(P) –0.7)
t  During positive cycle, diode is reverse biased.
Vo(P) The maximum amount of reverse voltage that a
vd
diode will be exposed to is called peak inverse
voltage (PIV) .
0
t
PIV= Vin(P) (PIV is positive value)
 Solution:
Exercise
For the half-wave rectifier shown vin
below: Vin(P)
(a) Sketch the output voltage waveform and
determine the output dc voltage if the 0 t
diode is ideal the diode i.e. VF = 0V.
(b) Repeat (a) if the diode is a simplified vo
silicon diode model.
0 t
(c) Repeat the calculation of V(AVE) in (a) and
Vo(P)
(b) for Vin(P) = 20 V and compare the two
results. V(DC)

(a) If diode is ideal, Vd=VF=0V

vd
- + Vo(P) = –Vin(P) =–20V
+
V(DC)=V(AVE)= 0.318Vo(P)= 0.318(–20) =–6.36V
vin R=2KΩ vo (b) If the diode is a simplified silicon model,
- Vd =VF =0.7V
Vo(P) = –(Vin(P) –0.7)=–(20 – 0.7)V= –19.3V

V(DC) = V(AVE) = 0.318 Vo(P) = 0.318(–19.3)

= –6.1374V
 Full-wave rectification
 One of the very common full-wave rectifiers is the bridge rectifier
 Bridge rectifier consists of four diodes
 The output average voltage level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be
double by a full-wave rectifier.

D1 D4 D1
D3
+ RL
vin vin
RL v0
 +
_ vo
D4 D2
D2 D3
 Full-wave rectifier

n:1+1=Vs:V+V + 0.7V - n:1+1=Vs:V+V - (IxR+V)+

VS + VS -
+ VR - VR
V D1 V D1
- + + +
0 t VS + 0 t VS -
- V D2 R 0 t + V D2 R 0 t
- +
- (IxR+V)+ I - + 0.7V - I -

V  0.7 VR  I  R V  0.7 VR  I  R
I I
R R

At positive cycle of the ac wave D1 will At negative cycle of the ac wave D2 will
conduct and produce VR and D2 will open conduct and produce VR and D1 will open
and has a reverse voltage (Peak Inverse and has a reverse voltage (Peak Inverse
Voltage PIV) of VD2= V+VR= V+IxR Voltage PIV) of VD1= V+VR= V+IxR

n:1+1=Vs:V+V
VR
V D1
VS +
At full cycle of the ac wave D1 and D2
0 t
V D2 R VR 0 t will alternatively produce VR which is
-
now dc voltage but full-wave.
158
 Bridge rectifier

n:1=Vs:V n:1=Vs:V
D2 D1
VR D2
D1
+ + I - - I
VR
VS V VS V
0 t + 0 t +
0 t +
- - D3 R VR + D3 D4 R VR
D4
- - 0 t

V  1.4 VR  I  R V  1 .4 VR  I  R
I I
R R

At positive cycle of the ac wave D1 & D3 At negative cycle of the ac wave D2 & D4
will conduct and produce VR and D2 & D4 will conduct and produce VR and D1 & D3
will open and has a reverse voltage (Peak will open and has a reverse voltage (Peak
Inverse Voltage PIV) of VD2= VD4 =V Inverse Voltage PIV) of VD1= VD3 =V

+ + D2
D1
I At full cycle of the ac wave D1 and D2
0 t VS V
- D3 t will alternatively produce VR which is
-
D4 R 0
now dc voltage but full-wave.

159
 Bridge rectifier vin
Vin(P)
D4 D1
–
+ 0 t
RL

– vo + vo Equal Area
–+ Vo(P)
Vave
D2
D3
0 t
 During positive cycle, D1, D2 are on
(conducting); D3, D4 are off (not V(AVE) (Full-wave) = 2 [V(AVE)(Half-wave)]
conducting) = 2 [Vo(P) /  ]
 During negative cycle, D3, D4 are = 2 [ 0.318 Vo(P) ]
on (conducting); D1, D2 are off (not = 0.636 V
conducting) When diodes are ideal: o(P)
*Whatever the input signal is in VF=0V, Vo(P) =Vin(P)
positive or negative cycle, current flow
through the load is always from right V(DC) =V(AVE) =0.636 Vin(P)
to left which is the same as assumed When diodes are simplified model:
Vo direction, therefore the load VF=0.7V, Vo(pk) =Vin(pk) –1.4;
voltage is kept positive.
Vdc=Vave=0.636(Vin(pk) –1.4)
 Bridge rectifier (cont’d)
• PIV of Bridge rectifier The maximum amount of reverse voltage that
a diode will be exposed to is called peak
0. inverse voltage (PIV)
7V
D4 D1
+
RL During positive cycle, D3, D4 are reverse
biased, PIV applied to each diode is:
– vo +
– 0.
7V D
2
D3  for ideal diode, VF=0V, equivalent to a short
circuit,
PIV= Vin(P)

 for simplified diode model, VF=0.7V, equivalent

to a 0.7V voltage source
PIV= Vin(P) – 0.7V
 Example
Refer to the diagram shown below. D4 D1
Assume all the diodes are ideal. –
+
(a) Sketch the output voltage waveform vo. RL
(b) Determine vo and the required PIV rating of each
diode.
- vo
+
–+
D2
Solution: D3
During positive
cycles:
D3 & D4 --> ON vin
During
D1 & D2negative
--> OFF 100
cycles:
D3 & D4 --> OFF 0 t
D1 actual
The & D2 --> ON direction is opposite
current
to the assumed Vo direction, so Vo is
vo
negative value
0
V(AVE) =0.636 Vo(P)
V(AVE)
t
=0.636(–100)=–63.6V
Vo(P)
PIV= Vin(P) =100V Equal Area
Average (DC) Output Voltage
Half-wave rectifier
Vm=ImxRL 
Im Idc 1
2 
n:1 Vdc  Vav  Vm sin  d
0
220V V
50Hz
Vm Vdc RL  m  cos  0
   2
 V V
 m 1  1 m
2 
Example:
A half-wave rectifier is to deliver an average voltage of 40.5V to a dc
load of RL=100W from an ac supply of 220V, 50Hz. Draw the circuit and
design the transformer turn ratio “n” , PIV and average current rating of
the diode.
40.5V
Vav  Iav  100  40.5V  Iav   0.405A
100
n:1 Im Idc
I
Iav  0.405A  m  Im  0.405    1.38A

220V
Vm Vdc= V  0.7V
50Hz 40.5V
RL Im  1.38A  m  Vm  1.38  100  0.7  138.7V
100 100
n 220V 2 220 2
   n  2.24
1 Vm 138.7
PIV  Vm  138.7V Iav  1.38A 163
 Full-wave rectifier and Bridge rectifier

n:1+1
Im Idc
Vm
220V
50Hz RL
Vm
Vdc Vm=ImxRL 
1
Vdc  Vav   Vm sin  d

0
   V
  P  cos  0
n :1 
Im Idc V 2V
220V  m 1  1 m
50Hz Vm  
RL
Vdc

164
 Example:
A full-wave rectifier is to deliver an average voltage of 40.5V to a dc load
of RL=100W from an ac supply of 220V, 50Hz. Draw the circuit and design
the transformer turn ratio “n” , PIV and average current rating of the
diode.

40.5V
Vav  Iav  100  40.5V  Iav   0.405A
100
2I 0.405   n:1+1
Iav  0.405A  m  Im   0.69A
 2 Im Idc
Vm
V  0.7V 220V
Im  0.69A  m  Vm  0.69  100  0.7  69.7V 50Hz
100 Vm RL
Vdc
n 220V 2 220 2
   n  4.46
1 Vm 69.7
I 0.69
PIV  2Vm  2  69.7V  139.4V and Iav (diode )  m   0.219A
 

165
 Diode Clipping and Clamping Circuit
Remember that
1 if the anode of the diode is more positive than it’s cathode, it
will conduct. (at least 0.6V more positive ..to be exact )
2 When it conducts, the voltage across the diode is zero. (approx. Model)

+12V +9V 0V -5V

+2 0V -4V -15V

1. series clippers…..diode is
between input and output terminals

2. parallel clippers……diode is across

the output terminal

166
 Diode Clipping Circuits
Diode Positive Clipper
input voltage VO
output voltage
R

0 VO 0

Positive peak is clipped to 0

R

• Diode conducts (becomes short) for voltages above zero VO

• When diode conducts the output voltage = zero

R
• Diode opens for voltages below zero
VO
• When diode opens the output voltage is the same as input voltage
( No current, no drop at “R” )

167
 Diode Negative Clipper

R VO

0 VO 0

Negative peak is clipped to 0

R

• Diode conducts for input voltages below zero VO

• When diode conducts the output voltage = zero

R
• Diode opens for input voltages above zero
VO
• When diode opens the output voltage is the same as input voltage
( No current, no drop at “R” )

168
 Diode Positive Clipper with positive bias voltage

VB VB

0 VO 0
VB

Positive peak is clipped to VB

• Diode conducts for input voltages above V B VO

VB
• When diode conducts the output voltage = V B

• Diode opens for input voltages below VB VO

• When diode opens the output voltage is the same as input voltage VB

( No current, no drop at “R” )

169
 Diode application: the diode as a clipper
• Clipping at positive cycle Clippers are used to clip off or eliminate a
portion of an ac signal.
R Vout=Vd+V1
1kΩ
If the Vin>(0.7V + V1), the diode is forward
Vd
biased and operating in forward operating
Diode Vout
region, it conducts current. Thus Vd is
Vin V1 clamped at 0.7 V, Vout=0.7 + V1.
V1
_ 0V
If the Vin< (0.7V + V1), but greater than -
(VBR + V1), the diode is operating in
vin
forward diffusion or reverse leakage
region, it does not conduct. It acts as an
open circuit, thus
0 t
Vout = Vin.
vout
If the Vin< -(VBR + V1), the diode operating
0.7+V1 in its breakdown region. If it does not fail,
the diode conducts current and the
0 t
output is clamped at
(VBR + V1).
 Diode Negative Clipper with positive bias voltage
R

VB VB

0 VO 0
VB

Negative peak is clipped to VB

• Diode conducts for input voltages below V B
• When diode conducts the output voltage = V B
• Diode opens for input voltages above VB
• When diode opens the output voltage is the same as input voltage
( No current, no drop at “R” ) Negative peak clipped to +4 V

171
 Diode Negative Clipper with negative bias voltage
R

0 VO 0
VB -Vb
-VB

Negative peak is clipped to -VB

• Diode conducts for input voltages below (-V B)

• When diode conducts the output voltage = (-V B)

• Diode opens for input voltages above (-V B)

• When diode opens the output voltage is the same as input voltage
( No current, no drop at “R” )

172
 Clipping at negative cycle
vin
Given that the input is a 16 V peak-to- 8
peak amplitude sine wave, sketch the
output waveform. Given VF = 0.7V and
VBR =50V for the diode. 0 t

R
5 kΩ –8
Vout
vout
+ 8
Diode Vd
Vin
16 V(PP) – 5V 0 t
V2 5V
–5.7
0V
_

If Vin <( –0.7 – V2 ) =–5.7V, diode is ‘ON’, Vout=–5.7V

(VBR–V2 )  Vin  ( –0.7 – V2 ) or 45  Vin  –5.7 operating in forward diffusion region or

reverse leakage region, diode is ‘OFF’, acts as an open-circuit, Vout=Vin

Vin  (VBR -V2)  45 V operating in reverse breakdown region

 Diode Positive Clipper with negative bias voltage

0 VO 0
-VB VB -VB

Positive peak is clipped to -VB

• Diode conducts for input voltages above (-V B)

• When diode conducts the output voltage = (-V B)

• Diode opens for input voltages below (-V B)

• When diode opens the output voltage is the same as input voltage
( No current, no drop at “R” )

174
 Diode Double Clipper with bias voltage
R

VB
VB
0 VO
VB 0
-VB -VB
-VB

Positive peak is clipped to VB

Negative peak is clipped to –V

R B R

• Diode1 (Left) conducts for input voltages above V B

VO VO
VB VB
• When diode conducts the output voltage = V B

• Diode2 (Right) conducts for input voltages below -V B

R
• When diode conducts the output voltage = -VB
VO
Between VB and –VB no diode conducts & no current, no drop at “R”
VB
Output voltage = Input voltage -VB

175
 Use of diodes as clipper in protection circuit
R Equipment

D1 D2
Equivalent to Vin
VA VB

 If the input voltage is higher than (VA + 0.7 V),

diode 1 turns ON and operating in forward
vin
operating region, thus the output is clamped
at:
Upper clamping voltage
= VA + 0.7 V
0 t

 If the input voltage is lower than (–VB – 0.7),

vout diode 2 turns ON and operating in forward
operating region, thus the output is clamped
VA + at:
Lower clamping voltage
0.7 t = –VB – 0.7 V
0
–VB–0.7
 Exercise (a) Because Vin(P) >VZ1+0.7=5.8V
vin
Zener diode forward voltage is 0.7V, reverse 9
breakdown voltage is 5.1V. sketch the input
and output waveform (a) when input signal
peak to peak value is 18V. (b) when input 0 t
voltage peak to peak value is 10V.
–9
vout
R
1kΩ 5.8
Vout
0 t
+ –5.8
Z1
Vin
Z2 (b) Because Vin(P) <VZ1+0.7=5.8V
- vin
5
 The positive maximum output 0 t
voltage=VZ1+0.7=5.1+0.7=5.8V
–5
vout
 The negative maximum output voltage=–
5
VZ2–0.7=–5.1–0.7=–5.8V
0 t

–5
 Diode negative Series-Bias Negative Clipper

-1
2
R
VB +1
VS VO 0
0
2V(p) -1
-1

-3
1.Average level Moves down to –1V

2.All negative peak below zero will be clipped to zero

-1 R -1 R
VS VO VS VO

When VS < +1 When VS > +1

178
Diode positive Series-Bias Negative Clipper
1 +3

2 R
VB +1
1 VS VO 0
0 2V(p) -1

1.Average level is lifted to +1V

2.All negative peak below zero will be clipped to zero

1 R 1 R
VS VO VS VO

When VS < -1 When VS > -1

179
 Diode attenuator
R1 D1

R1 D1 R2 D2
VS VO1
RL
Vo1
R2 D2 R1 D1
0 VS VO 0
RL
R2 D2 Vo2
VS VO2
RL

R1 D1

R1 D1
R2
VS VO
RL Vo1

0 R2
VS VO R1 D1 0
RL Vo2
R2
VS VO
RL

180
 DIODE CLAMPING CIRCUITS
Diode Negative Clamper
- C+
VP
2VP
+ VP
VP R
0
-
2VP
-VP
- +
VO
C VP

R
0
-C +
0
- VP
VP R
+
negative peak clamp to zero

Diode is used only to charge the capacitor

181
 Diode Positive Clamper

VP
+C -
0
0 + VP
VP R
-VP - 0

+ -
VO
-VP
C
R
-2VP

C
+ - -2VP
- VP
VP R

positive peak clamp to zero

+

Diode is used only to charge the capacitor

182
 Diode Biased Negative Clamper

VP -C +
VO=2VP+VB
+ VP+VB
0
VP R
-VP C
-
- +
VO
- VP+VB
2VP

VP R
VB
+ VB
0

C VO=VP+VB-VP
- + =VB
- VP+VB
VP R
+
negative peak clamp to +VB

Diode is used only to charge the capacitor

183
 Diode Biased Positive Clamper

VP
C
+ - VO=-(VP-VB)+VP
0 =VB
+ VP-VB
VP R VB
-VP
C -
+ - VO
0

2VP
+ VP-VB
VP R C
+ - VO=-(VP-VB)-VP
- VB
- VP-VB
=-2VP+VB

VP R
+

positive peak clamp to +VB

Diode is used only to charge the capacitor

184
 Wave shaping circuits design
Design of R
R
VP

0 RL VO
t
-VP
-VP

While designing the clipper, tolerance is given 10% at the output amplitude if
RL = 10 R
This condition should be satisfied at highest resistance seen from R L ( in this case,
when the diode open at negative peaks )

When the diode short at positive peaks, resistance seen by R L is already zero which
requires no design of R

185
 Design of C
+C -
0
+ VP
+ - VP RL
VO
C - 0

RL
-VP
C
+ - -2VP
- VP -2VP

VP RL
+

While designing the clamper, tolerance is given 10% capacitor discharge rate at
the output amplitude if
T = ( 1/f ) = 0.1 RL C or RL C = 10 T = 10/f
This condition should be satisfied at highest resistance seen from R L ( in this
case, when the diode open at input negative cycles )

186
 Frequency effect on the clampers

- C
+ + - -2VP
VO
C - VP
Capacitor discharge should be very slow
f R
f VP R
(RC high) to make capacitor voltage = V P
+

Capacitor discharge

High frequency-OK Low frequency-not OK

For high signal frequencies T < When signal frequencies become
RC/10, low, T > RC/10,
Capacitor discharge very slow Capacitor discharge follows the
= capacitor charged voltage is signal path = capacitor is short
nearly constant (becomes clipping circuit)
(Requirement for clamping)
187
 Summary of Design Equations
Wave Shaping Circuits

VO R1 D1 VO + -
VO
R Vin C
R2 D2
RL RL RL

Clipper Design Attenuator Design Clamper Design

RL = 10 R R1 or R2<< 0.1 RL RL C = 10 T = 10/f
VO 0
Vo1

-Vmax
0 0
Vo2
-2Vmax

If RC is not > 10T capacitor becomes coupling. Circuit will behave as a clipper.

188
 Design example
Design all components in the following wave shaping circuit if the frequency of the
input wave is 1kHz. and the load resistance R L = 100k
5

5 0 5 +4 5
-4
0 0
clamper clipper 5
-4
-5

-C + R
5V(P) - 5-4V
RL=100k
+ -4 +4

• When the diode of the clipper opens, resistance seen by R L is R

Then R = 10k (= RL / 10 )
• The lowest resistance seen by C is R
Then C=10T/R=10/fR=10/(103x104)=10-6F=1 mF

189
Example
(a) Draw the clamping circuit where the positive peak is clamped to 0V.
Input voltage is 20V(pp) sine wave having a frequency of 10kHz. If C = 1 mF with a
series resistor of 0.1R , find the value of R (connected across the output terminals)
required for clamping. Draw the input and output waveforms.

Clamping circuit design is when RC > 10T

RT C = 1.1Rx1x10-6 > 10 (1/f) = 10/10x103 or 1.1R > 1/103-6 > 103
R = 0.9 kW

+10 0.09 kW
+ - 0
0.1R C R
0
10kHz 1 mF 0.9 kW -10

-10
-20

190
(b) If the input into the above clamping circuit is changed to 5 kHz , 20V(pp) sine
wave. Draw the input and output waveforms.

Clamping circuit design is when RC > 10T

RC = 103 x10-6 = 10–3 sec , 10 T = 10/5x103 = 2x10-3
RC is not > 10T , it cannot clamp , capacitor discharge will follow the
signal path , making capacitor like a short. Circuit will become a clipper.

+10
0.09 kW
+ -
0.1R C R
0 5kHz 1 mF 0.9 kW 0

-10
-10

191
A clamping circuit is used with a 5 kHz , 20V(pp) sine wave. The time constant of
the circuit is changed by using R = 1kW , C = 0.001 mF. Draw the input and output
waveforms. What kind of wave shaping circuit is it?

Clamping circuit design is when RC > 10T

RC = 103 x10-9 = 10–6 sec , 10 T = 10/5x103 = 2x10-3
RC is not > 10T , it cannot clamp , capacitor discharge will follow the
signal path , making capacitor like a short. Circuit will become a clipper.

+ -
VO
+10 C
5 kHz , 0.001mF R 1k 0
0 20V(pp)

-10 -10

192
 Zener Diode and Applications
Regulated power supply = output dc is constant (stable) at different loads or
at varying ac supply conditions = battery source characteristics

Zener diode

IZ IZF

Zener used as
VZ regular diode

VR VF
IZmin=0.1IZmax
0.7V

Zener used as VZ
reverse
breakdown IZmax=PZ/VZ
voltage diode IZR
193
Zener diode design conditions

Ri
IZ
VSmin
to VZ
VSmax

• Whether input voltage is VSmin or VSmax , the output voltage will be constant
at Zener breakdown voltage VZ
• Constant output voltage is the regulated output voltage and the circuit is
Zener regulator circuit.

• Zener current will becomes less IZmin at VSmin and it will increase to IZmax at
VSmax

• Minimum Zener current IZmin should not less than 10% IZmax to maintain
constant VZ
• Maximum Zener current IZmax should not more than PZ/VZ not to burn the
Zener diode
194
 Zener regulator design equation
Ri ILmin to ILmax

VSmin to VSmax VZ RL

IZmin to IZmax

1. When the load draws more current (I Lmax), Zener current will becomes less (I Zmin)
and the supply voltage will becomes smaller (V Smin) then:
VS min VZ
VS min VZ  I L max  I Z min Ri or Ri 
I L max  I Z min

2. When the load draws less current (I Lmin), Zener current will becomes more (I Zmax)
and the supply voltage will increase (V Smax) then:
VS max VZ
VS max VZ  I L min  I Z max Ri or Ri 
I L min  I Z max

195
3. Then equating the two equations, we have:
VS min VZ VS max VZ
 Ri   taking I Z min  0.1 I Z max
I L max  I Z min I L min  I Z max
VS min VZ VS max VZ
We have  or if simplified ,
I L max  0.1 I Z max I L min  I Z max
I V VS min   IL max VS max VZ
I Z max  L min Z

VS min  0.9VZ  0.1VS min
Zener rating design equation
Now I Z maxVZ  PZ

VS max VZ VS min VZ

Value of Ri  or Ri 
I L min  I Z max I L max  I Z min
VS max VZ 2
Power rating of Ri  PRi  Because VS max VZ   VS min VZ 
Ri

Zener series resistor Ri rating design equation

Ri ILmin to ILmax

VSmin to VSmax VZ RL

IZmin to IZmax
196
 Summary of Design Equations
Zener Regulator

Ri ILmin to ILmax

VSmin to VSmax VZ RL

IZmin to IZmax

Design Ri Design IZmax

VS min  VZ VS max  VZ
Ri  
IL max  0.1IZ max IL min  IZ max
OR
I V  VS min   IL max VS max  VZ 
IZ max  L min Z
VS min  0.9VZ  0.1VS min

197
Design Example
• Draw the Zener regulator circuit
• The load current ranges from 100mA to 200mA and the input source voltage
ranges from 14V to 20V. Regulated output voltage is 10V Ri  VS min  VZ  VS max  VZ
IL max  0.1IZ max IL min  IZ max
• Find the range of RL
OR
• Design the required power rating of the Zener P Z
IL min VZ  VS min   IL max VS max  VZ 
• Design the series resistor R i and it’s power rating IZ max 
VS min  0.9VZ  0.1VS min
Ri 100mA to 200mA
10V
Range of RL   50 
200 mA
14V to 20V VZ RL
10V
to  100 
100 mA
0.1IZmax to IZmax VO  VZ  10V

VS min VZ VS max VZ 14  10 20  10

  
I L max  0.1 I Z max I L min  I Z max 200  0.1 I Z max 100  I Z max
1600
 2000  I Z max  400  4 I Z max  I Z max   533 mA
3

Power rating of Zener  PZ  VZ I Z max  10  533 mA  5.33W

20  10 Power rating of Ri  PRi 

20  10 2  6.33W
Value of Ri   15.8 
100  533 15.8
198
 Further on
Power Diode Rectifiers
Single Diode Rectifier
Single Diode Rectifier
 Single Diode Rectifier
• Inductive load
– Period I (0 ~ θ1): vs > vR → vL >0 →energy is stored in
L→is↑
– Period II (θ1 ~ π): vs < vR → vL <0 →energy stored in L
is released to the load→is ↓
– Period III (π ~ θ): is >0 → L continuous to release it’s
energy to the load→is ↓ until is=0
– Period IV (θ ~2π): No energy left in L→ is = 0 →
diode D is off
Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
 Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier

Note: Conduction angle of each diode = 1800

 Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier

THD: Total Harmonic Distortion

PF: Power factor
DF: Distortion Factor
DPF: Displacement power factor
Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Single-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
 3-Phase Center-Tap Diode Rectifier
• The three-phase center-tap rectifier uses the neutral
connection of the supply as the return path for the load
 3-Phase Center-Tap Diode Rectifier

The figure shows:

Waveforms and diode
reverse blocking
voltage of 3-phase CT
rectifier. Note that i1 is
the input current
waveform of a delta-
connected primary input
transformer.
3-Phase Center-Tap Diode Rectifier
 3-Phase Center-Tap Diode Rectifier
• If we assume that the load is highly inductive, the load current
can be taken to be smooth and ripple free. In that case, in the
steady-state, the diode and the secondary current waveforms (ia
− ic) can be approximated as flat-topped waveforms of 120° of
conduction followed by 240° of non conduction, as indicated in
the above traces.

• Note that the secondary windings of the supply transformer

carry unidirectional currents, which leads to DC magnetization of
the transformer core. This implies that the transformer cores
have DC flux, so that for a given AC voltage and flux swing, it
must have larger core size than is necessary. This problem of DC
magnetization is avoided in the hexa-phase rectifier circuit. The
output voltage waveform of this rectifier has six positive voltage
pulses per AC cycle (a 6-pulse rectifier).
Hexa-Phase Rectifier with Delta Connected Primary
Hexa-Phase Rectifier with Delta Connected Primary
Hexa-phase Rectifier with Inter-phase Reactor
 Hexa-phase Rectifier with Inter-phase Reactor
• The previous hexa-phase rectifier does not utilize the input transformer or
the switches well. However, the conduction period for each winding and
diode is only 60° per cycle. This is avoided in the below rectifier in which two
CT rectifiers operate independently and their output voltages add across an
inter-phase reactor (inductor) which carries half of the load current and
supports the potential difference between the two rectifiers.
 Hexa-phase Rectifier with Inter-phase Reactor
• The output voltage waveform is a 6-pulse waveform (i.e., six
voltage pulses per cycle of the input ac waveform), the
dominant ripple being at six times the supply frequency.
• The output DC voltage is given by Vd = 3Vmax/π
• Each diode and each transformer secondary winding now
conducts for 120°. The inter-phase reactor has bi-directional
current, hence it also does not suffer from any dc
magnetization.
• Note that iRY = ia – ia’ ; iBR = iC – iC’ ; iR = iRY – iBR
• The voltage across the reactor is AC, a roughly triangular
waveform of amplitude which is 0.5Vmax.
 Center-Tap Rectifiers with 12 & Higher Pulse Numbers
• 12- and 24-pulse rectifiers can be formed by connecting six-pulse
rectifier circuits, as shown in the below figure, in series or parallel.
The figure shows two parallel connected hexa-phase (6-pulse)
rectifiers forming a 12-pulse rectifier.
• One of the input voltage waveforms, van, & the output voltage vo,
the input primary currents iR1, iR2 for converter groups 1 & 2, and
the total primary input current waveform iR to the transformer are
indicated in the next figures.
– The waveforms for the 12-pulse rectifier show that the DC output voltage waveform
now has much lower ripple and that the input current waveform iR is now more
closer to a sinusoid.
Center-Tap Rectifiers with 12 & Higher Pulse Numbers
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
Three-phase Diode Bridge Rectifier
OTHER SWITCH DEVICES
 Light  Emitting  Diodes
à The  Light‐Emitting  Diode
(LED)  is  a  semiconductor pn
junction  diode  that emits 
visible  light  or  near‐
infrared  radiation  when
forward  biased.
à Visible  LEDs  emit relatively 
narrow  bands  of green, 
yellow,  orange,  or red  light. 
Infrared  LEDs
emit  in  one  of  several
bands  just  beyond  red light.
 Facts  about  LEDs
à LEDs  switch  off  and  on  rapidly,  are  very
rugged  and  efficient ,have  a  very  long
lifetime,  and  are  easy  to  use.
à They  are  current‐dependent  sources,  and
their  light  output  intensity  is  directly
proportional  to  the  forward  current  through
the  LED.
à Always  operate  an  LED  within  its  ratings  to
prevent  irreversible  damage.
à Use  a  series  resistor  (Rs)  to  limit  the  current
through  the  LED  to  a  safe  value.   VLED is  the
LED  voltage  drop  .
It  ranges  from  about  1.3V to  about  3.6V.
à ILED is  the  specified  forward  current. V − VLED
R s = in
(Generally  20mA). I LED
Approximate  LED 
threshold voltages
Diode VLED Diode VLED

infra-red 1.2 blue 3.6

red 2.2 purple 3.6

yellow 2.2 ultra-violet 3.7

green 3.5 white 3.6

Light  Emitting  Diodes  (LEDs)

ƒ Like  diodes,  current  only  flows  through  them  in

one  direction
ƒ Three ways of identifying negative lead:
à The shortest lead
à Largest ‘triangle’ inside the LED
à Flat on the LED package

-
+
 Photovoltaic

ƒ Light  falling  on  a  pn‐junction

can  be  used  to  generate
electricity  from  light  energy
(as  in  a  solar  cell)
ƒ These  devices   are  called
photodiodes
ƒ Fast  acting,  but  the  voltage
produced  is  not linearly A typical photodiode
related  to  light  intensity
 Photoconductive

ƒ Such  devices  do  not  produce

electricity,  but  simply  change
their  resistance
ƒ Photodiode  (as  described
earlier)  can  be  used  in  this  w
ay to  produce  a  linear  device
ƒ Phototransistors  act  like
photodiodes  but  with  greater
sensitivity
ƒ Light‐dependent  resistors
(LDRs)  are  slow,  but  respond
like  the  human  eye A light-dependent resistor (LDR)
 Opto-electronics Circuits and Design

Fundamentals of Photo-electricity
If the electricity in a device changes due to the luminous power coming from the
light, the device is called “ Photo-electric device “. Photo-resistor, Photo-diode, Photo-
transistor, Opto-couplers are all Photo-electric devices.
Photo-electric relationships Sphere surface area = 4  r 2
P
I lamp
V light 1. Luminous Power = PV
2. Heat Power = PH
»
-
AC-DC source Electrical Power = W = V x I * radius = r

Spherical distribution of light power equally in all directions

Isotropic light source = point source
According to the photo-efficiency of the type of the lamp, P V usually is very small and it is between 1
% to 3 % of the electrical power. The rest is the heat power P H which is 97 % to 99 % of the electrical
input power.
 Electrical power W = V*I = PV +PH where luminous power PV=h W and heat power
PH=(1-h ) W taking h = photo efficiency of the light source
If we assume that the light source is isotropic (radiating in all directions) having a
sphere of radius “r” producing a surface area of 4pr2 , then the luminous power
per unit area ( expressed in “E” ) will be: P
E V
2
W / m2
4r

Fundamentals of Photo-diode +ID

I IS 5 4 3 2 1 0
VS= -VD VD
lamp E1
V E1 VD VS E2
E3
photo diode
Characteristics of Photo Diode IS= - ID

Photo diode is reversed bias so that I D = 0 when no light falls ( E = 0 ) on it. More power
from the lamp (either lamp nearer to diode or more electrical power to the lamp) will
result more luminous power on the diode called E 2 and E3 and so on, the reverse diode
current will increase. In this way we will have different I D from different luminous
power E.
 Photodiodes

ƒ Photodiodes are  designed  to  detect  photons

and  can  be  used  in  circuits  to  sense  light.

Note:
Reverse current flows through the
photodiode when it is sensing light.
If photons excite carriers in a
reverse- biased pn junction, a very
small current proportional to the
light intensity flows.
The sensitivity depends on
the wavelength of light.
 Analysis and design of photo-diode circuits
VS
VD1 +ID
ID1xR
I ID1 R VS 5 4 3 2 1 0
VS=-VD +VD
lamp E1 ID1
R
V E1 VS E2
r E3 VS
photo diode R
IS=-ID
Analysis of Photo Diode

1.Locate VS , 2.Locate ID=VS /R , 3.Find Q point at the crossing of E and R ,

4.Read VD1 and ID1
PV   W  V  I
PV
E 2
W / m2
4r
ID 1R VD  VS
where I D 1 is given by cros sin g of E  curve and R  load line
 Design Example

Draw the photo diode circuit, sketch the load-line graph and design the
value of “r” ( distance between lamp and photo-transistor), to produce V R
= 10 V, if Photo-efficiency  = 3 % ,VS = 20 V, R = 470 , and the lamp
electrical power is 40 watts.
VS
VD1 +ID
ID1xR
ID1 10V 20 10 0 E ID
VS=-VD +VD
lamp E1 ID1 500W/m2 10mA
470
R 1000W/m2 20mA
40W E1 VS E2 ID2
20V E3 ID3 1500W/m2 30mA
20/0.47k

IS=-ID
10V 21.3
ID   21.3mA  E   1000  1064 W / m2
0.47k 20
PV W 0.03  40 0.03  40
1064 W / m2     r2   29.5  10  4 m2
4r 2 4r2 4 r2 4 1064
r  29.5  10  4  0.0543m  5.43cm
 Phototransistor
• Phototransistor is a BJT with the light sensitive collector base
junction exposed to light through a window (a lens opening) in the 
transistor package. Phototransistors are also considered to
be photodiodes  with  some internal  amplification.
• Sometimes called a photodetector.
• When there is no incident light, there is a small thermally generated
leakage current, I , called the dark current and is typically in nA range.
CEO

• When  light  strikes  the  collector‐base pn junction, a  base  current, Iλ, is 
produced  that  is  directly proportional  to  the  light  intensity.
• Light intensity controls the collector current.
IC = βDCIλ
 Phototransistor

• There are many applications for this device,

light activated switching being one. They come
with or without the base connection.
• The curve illustrates collector current with
different light intensities.
Fundamentals of Photo-transistors

IC
E1
VC

The photo transistor is forward biased and has it’s Base sensitive to the
light. The luminous power E falling on it’s Base will make the photo
transistor to conduct producing IC. More luminous power E will result more
collector current IC.
IC
I IC
lamp 3mA E3
2mA E2
V E VC VS
1mA E1

5 10 15 VC
photo transistor

Charateristics of Photo Transistor

Analysis and design of photo-transistor circuits
IC

IC ESAT
I ICQ R
lamp R E3
Q
ICQ E2
V E2 VCQ VCC
E1
r
VCC VC
photo transistor VCQ ICQxR

Analysis of Photo Transistor

1.Locate VCC, 2.Locate IC=VCC/R , 3.Find Q point at the crossing of E and R ,

4.Read VCEQ and ICQ
PV   W  V  I
PV
E 2
W / m2
4r
ICQ R  VCQ  VCC
where ICQ is given by cros sin g of E  curve and R  load line
Phototransistor  Light  Sensitivity

The  current
through  a
phototransisto
r is  directly
proportional  to
the  intensity  of
the  incident
light.
Notes  on  Phototransistor

ƒ A  phototransistor  can  be  either  a  two‐lead  or

three‐lead  device.
The  collector  characteristic  curves  show  the
collector  current  increasing  with  light  intensity.

Phototransistors  are  sensitive  only  to  light  within

a  certain  range  of  wavelengths  as  defined  by their 
spectral  response  curve.
ƒ Photodarlingtons  have  higher  light  sensitivity
than   phototransistors  but  slower  switching
speed  .
 Phototransistor

Application- Light Operated Relay Circuit

• Phototransistor, Q1 drives the BJT Q2. When
there is sufficient incident light on Q1,
transistor Q2 is driven into saturation, and IC
through relay coil energizes the relay. Diode
D1 is to control back EMF when Q2 turns off.
 Phototransistor

Application- Darkness Operated Relay Circuit

1. When there is insufficient light, Q2 is biased on, keep
the relay energized. When there is sufficient light, Q1
turns on, this pulls base Q2 low, thus turn off Q2
reenergizes the relay. Diode D1 is to control back EMF
when Q2 turns off.
 Phototransistor

Application- Light Interruption Alarm Circuit

• Q1 normally on, holding SCR gate low. When the light is
interrupted, Q1 turn off. The rise time pulse trigger
SCR and sets off the alarm mechanism. SW1 is for
reset the alarm. It being used as smoke detection or
intrusion detection.
Applications  of
Phototransistors
+V
ƒ Phototransistors  are
used  in  a  wide  variety Alarm
of  applications  such
as  automatic  door R1 SCR
activators,  process
counters,  and  various Reset
light‐activated switch
R2
Q1
alarms.

Light-interruption alarm
Design Example

Draw the photo transistor circuit, sketch the load-line graph and design
value of R if “r” ( distance between lamp and photo-transistor) = 10cm, V R
= 10 V, Photo-efficiency  = 3 % ,VCC = 20 V, and the lamp electrical power
is 40 watts. I C

20/R ESAT
I ICQ R
lamp R E3
Q E IC
VCQ ICQ E2
V E2 VCC 5W/m2 10mA
E1
r 10W/m2 20mA
20V VC
photo transistor VCQ 10V 15W/m2 30mA

PV W 0.03  40
E    9.55W / m2
4 r2 4 r2 4 0.1m2
9.55
IC   10mA  19mA
5
10V
R  0.523k  523
19mA
 Analysis of photo-transistor driven Comparator circuits

15 V 15 V

IC Photo-transistor
r R1
I E3 = 2
1 kW 6mA 30 mW / cm
IC R E2 = 20 mW / cm
2
4mA
V VC E1 = 2
20 V E +15 V 2mA 10 mW / cm
V1
-13V to +13V +V C
V2 V0 0 5 10 15
2.1 kW RE
-15 V R = RE
 2% R2
1 kW photo-transistor driven comparator circuits

(a) When there is no light E=0 , I C=0 V1 = 0. But V2 = 7.5V and because V1<V2 (less positive
voltage going into negative terminal of comparator). then the output V o will become
positive and equals +13V.
(b) The luminous power E falling enough on it’s Base will make the photo transistor to
conduct producing IC. Then IC RE drop = V1 > V2, then the output Vo will become negative
and equals -13V
(c) Design condition is that enough luminous power E should make I C RE drop = V1 > 7.5V
to have a negative voltage output at the comparator.
 Analysis of photo-transistor driven Schmitt Trigger circuits
R2 R1 1k
+15 V LTL  VREF  VLO   13  6.5V  VREF  0
R1  R2 R1  R2 1k  1k
R2 R1 1k
r HTL  VREF  VHI   13  6.5V  VREF  0
RC R1  R2 R1  R2 1k  1k
I 0.3 k
IC Photo-transistor
IC
conduct open
V VC E3 = 2
20 V E +15 V
15mA 30 m W / c m
V1 2
-13V to +13V 10mA
E2 = 20 m W / c m
V2 V0
R 2
5mA E1 = 10 m W / c m
2.15 k RE
-15 V
 2% +VC
0 5 15 30
R2 R1
1k 1k R = RC+RE

-15 V
(a) Here V1 should be greater than +6.5V. To make output V o negative and equals -13V.
(b) Here V1 should be less than -6.5V. To make output V o positive and equals +13V.
(c) The luminous power E is responsible to produce I C so that IC RE drop will make the
Schmitt Trigger output either negative or positive, with a Hysterisis of ±6.5V
 The  Light‐Activated  SCR

ƒ The  light‐activated  SCR  (LASCR)  operates

essentially  as  does  the  conventional  SCR  e
xcept it  can  also  be  light‐triggered.
ƒ Most  LASCRs  have  an  available  gate  terminal  for
conventional  triggering.
ƒ The  LASCR  is  most  sensitive  to  light  when  the
gate  terminal  is  open.
Symbol
Optical  Couplers

ƒ Optical  couplers  provide  complete  electrical

isolation  between  an  input  circuit  and  an  output
circuit.
They  provide  protection  from  high  voltage
transients,  surge  voltage,  and  low‐level  noise.

They  also  allow  voltage  level  translation,  and

different  grounds  for  interfacing  circuits.

Input  circuit  of  optical  coupler  is  typically  an  LED

 Output  circuit  can  take  many  forms.

Common  Types  of  Optical‐Coupling
Devices

Phototransistor Output LASCR Output

Photodarlington Output Phototriac Output

Optocoupler  Parameters
Isolation Voltage is  the  maximum  voltage
between  the  input  and  output  terminals  without
dielectric  breakdown;  typically  7500 V  ac  peak.

ƒ DC Current Transfer  Ratio = 
outI/I(in 
in %);  typically
2 to  100%  for  phototransistors.
ƒ LED Trigger Current is  the  current  (mA)  required
to  trigger  light‐activated  thyristor  output
devices.
ƒ Transfer Gain = Vout/Iin applies  to  optically isolated 
ac  linear  couplers;  typically  200  mV/mA.
 Fundamentals of Opto-couplers

OPTO-COUPLERS are also called Opto-isolators. Inside the opto-coupler, light from
LED excite the photo-transistor to flow collector current.
The distance between LED and Photo device = r is fixed inside the IC and so the input
and output characteristics of Opto-couplers are given by LED current I F versus
current of the Photo device Ic or ID or IR depending upon which type of coupler is
used.In the case of Photo-transistor couplers , input is I F and the output is Ic . Then we
I
have a current gain between the input and the output called h F given by :- hF  c
IC IF
IF IC
15mA IF3 = 30mA
10mA IF2 = 20mA
VC VCC IF1 = 10mA
5mA

2 4 6 8 VC
optocoupler

Charateristics of Optocoupler
5 mA 10 mA
Optocoupler shown above hF   0.5 at I F 10 mA and hF   0.5 at I F  20 mA
10 mA 20 mA
or hF is nearly cons tan t at all I F values .
Analysis and design of opto-coupler circuits
IC
IF R IC VCC/R
15mA IF3 = 30mA
Q
10mA ICQ IF2 = 20mA
VC VCC R
5mA IF1 = 10mA

2 4 6 8 VC
optocoupler VCC
VCQ ICQxR
Analysis of Optocoupler

1.Locate VCC, 2.Locate IC=VCC/R , 3.Find Q point at the crossing of I F and R ,

4.Read VCQ and ICQ
Ic
hF 
IF

I CQ R  VCQ  VCC
where I CQ is given by cros sin g of I F curve and R load line
 Analysis of Opto-coupler driven Schmitt Trigger circuits
+15 V

Optocoupler
IC
saturate open
RC I Fsat= 40 m A
+15 V 20mA
IF 0.965 k
V1 -13V to +13V I F3 = 30m A
15mA
IC V0
V2 I F2 = 20 m A
V 10mA
R
VC
-15 V 5mA I F1 = 10 m A

+V C
R2 R1 0 15 30
RE 0.5 k 1k
R = RC+RE
R2 R1 0.5k
LTL  VREF  VLO   13  4.33V  VREF  0
R1  R2 R1  R2 1k  0.5k
R2 R1 0.5k
HTL  VREF  VHI   13  4.33V  VREF  0
-15 V R1  R2 R1  R2 1k  0.5k

(a) Here V1 should be greater than +4.33V. To make output V o negative and equals -
13V.
(b) Here V1 should be less than -4.33V. To make output V o positive and equals +13V.
(c) The Input LED current IF is responsible to produce IC so that IC RC drop will make
V1 = ± 4.33V and the Schmitt Trigger output will become either negative or
positive, with a Hysterisis of ± 4.33V
Design Example

Draw the opto-coupler circuit, sketch the load-line graph and design the
value of IF if hF = 0.5, VR = 10 V, VCC = 20 V, R = 1kW. What is the value of
VCQ? I C
IF R IC VCC/R
15mA IF3 = 30mA
Q
10mA ICQ IF2 = 20mA
VC VCC R
5mA IF1 = 10mA

5 10 15 20 VC
optocoupler VCC
VCQ ICQxR
Analysis of Optocoupler

10V
IC   10mA
1k
I 10mA
hF  C  0. 5  I F   20mA
IF 0.5
VCQ  VCC  ICQ  R  20  10  10V
 Summary of Design Equations
Optical-Electronics Circuit and Design +ID

I IS 5 4 3 2 1 0
VS= -VD VD
lamp E1
V E1 VD VS E2
E3
photo diode
PV   W  V  I IS= - ID
Characteristics of Photo Diode
PV
E 2
W / m2 IC
4r I IC
lamp 3mA E3
2mA E2
V E VC VS
1mA E1

5 10 15 VC
photo transistor

Charateristics of Photo Transistor

IC
IF IC
15mA IF3 = 30mA
Ic IF2 = 20mA
hF  VC VCC
10mA
IF 5mA IF1 = 10mA

2 4 6 8 VC
optocoupler

Charateristics of Optocoupler