HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 11 {PHS 222}

DEPARTMENT OF NURSING SCIENCE.

TANSIAN UNIVERSITY, UMUNYA.

• Digestion is defined as the process by which

food is broken down into simpler chemical
substances that can be absorbed and used as
nutrients by the body.
FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
• Ingestion or consumption of food particles.
• Breaking them into small particles.
• Transport of small particles to different areas of the
digestive tract.
• Secretion of necessary enzymes and other
substances for digestion.
• Digestion of food particles.
• Absorption of digested product.
• Removal of unwanted substances from the body.
 FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM.
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine.
 ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Salivary glands
• Exocrine part of pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder
GASTRO INTESTINAL TRACT
Mouth is an oral cavity or buccal cavity.
 MAJOR SALIVERY GLANDS.
• Major glands are:
• Parotid glands
• Submaxillary or submandibular glands
• Sublingual glands
 GLAND EXPLANATION CONTS.
• PAROTID GLANDS: They are the largest of all salivary glands
situated at the side of face just below and in front of the ear.
Secretions from these glands are emptied in the oral cavity by
stensen duct.
• SUBMAXILLARY/SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS: They are located in
the submaxillary triangle, medial to mandible. Saliva from these
glands are emptied into the oral cavity by Wharton duct, which
is about 40 mm long.
• SUBLINGUAL GLANDS: They are the smallest salivary glands
situated in the mucosa at the floor of the mouth. Saliva from
these glands is poured into 5 to 15 small ducts called ducts of
Rivinus.
 FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA.
• Preparation of food for swallowing.
• Appreciation of tastes.
• Digestive function.
• Cleansing and protective function.
• Role in speech.
• Excreting function.
• Regulation of body temperature.
• Regulation of water balance.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Hyposalivation.
• Hypersalivation.
 STOMACH.
• Stomach is a hollow organ situated just below the
diaphragm on the left side in the abdominal cavity.
• PARTS OF STOMACH: In humans, stomach has four
parts:
• Cardiac region
• Fundus
• Body or corpus
• Pyloric region
PARTS OF STOMACH
 FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH
• Mechanical functions
• Digestive functions.
• Protective functions
• Hemopoietic function
• Excretory function
 PHASES OF GASTRIC SECRETION.
• Gastric secretion occurs in three different
phases:
• Cephalic phase
• Gastric phase
• Intestinal phase
 EXPLANATIONS OF THESE PHASES.
• CEPHALIC PHASE: Secretions of gastric juice is stimulated by
vagus nerve. In conditioned reflex, sight, smell, thought of
and hearing about food secretes gastric juice. In conditioned
reflex, presence of food in mouth secretes gastric juice.
• GASTRIC PHASE: Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by
vagus nerve, local nerves and gastrin. Here bolus in stomach
stimulates gastric juice.
• INTESTINAL PHASE: Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated
by gastrin while secretion of gastric juice is inhibited by
secretin, cholecytokinin, somatostatin, GIP and VIP. Chyme
in intestine stimulate gastric juice.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Gastritis
• Gastric Atrophy
• Peptic Ulcer
 PANCREAS.
• It is a dual organ having two functions namely
endocrine and exocrine function.
• APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Pancreatitis: Inflammation of the pancreatic
acini.
• Steatorrhea: It is the formation of the bulky, foul-
smelling, frothy and clayed colored stool with
large quantity of undigested fat because of
impaired digestion and absorption of fat.
DRAWING OF PANCREAS
 LIVER AND GALL BLADDER
• Liver is a dual organ having both secretary and
excretory functions. It is located in the upper
and right side of the abdominal cavity,
immediately beneath diaphragm.
POSTERIOR SURFACE OF LIVER.
 BILE SALTS AND IS FUNCTIONS.
• Bile salts are the sodium and potassium salt of bile
acids which are conjugated with glycine or taurine.
• FUNCTIONS OF BILE SALTS:
• Emulsification of fats.
• Absorption of fats
• Choleretic action
• Laxative action
• Prevention of gallstone formation.
 BILE PIGMENTS.
• They are the excretory products in bile.
Bilirubin and biliverdin are the two bile
pigments and bilirubin is the major bile
pigment in human beings.
 FUNCTIONS OF BILE.
• Digestive function • Choleratic action
• Absorptive function • Maintenance of PH in
• Excretory function G.I.T
• Laxative action • Prevention of gall stone.
• Antiseptic action • Lubrication function
• Cholagogue action.
 FUNCTIONS OF LIVER.
• Metabolic function • Heat production
• Storage function. • Hemopoietic function
• Synthetic function • Hemolytic function
• Secretion of bile • Inactivation of
• Excretory function hormones and drugs
• Defensive and
detoxification function.
 GALL BLADDER AND ITS FUNCTIONS
• Bile secreted in the liver is stored in the gall bladder. The
capacity of gall bladder is approximately 50 ML. Gall
bladder is not essential for life and it is removed from the
patients suffering from gall bladder disfunctioning.
• FUNCTIONS OF GALL BLADDER:
• Storage of bile.
• Concentration of bile
• Alteration of PH of bile.
• Secretion of mucin
• Maintenance of pressure in biliary system.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY:
• Jaundice
• Hepatitis
• Cirrhosis of liver
• Gall stones.
 SMALL INTESTINE.
• It is the part of gastrointestinal tract,
extending between the pyloric sphincter of
the stomach and ileocecal valve, which opens
into large intestine.
• PARTS OF SMALL INTESTINE:
• Proximal part known as duodenum.
• Middle part known as jejunum
• Distal part known as ileum.
PARTS OF SMALL INTESTINE IS LOCATED IN THE DRAWING.
 CELLS OF SMALL INTESTINE.
• Argentaffin cells or enterochromaffin cells
which secrete intrinsic factor of castle.
• Goblet cells which secrete mucus.
• Paneth cells which secrets mucus.
• Paneth cells which secrete the cytokines called
defensins.
 FUNCTIONS OF SUCCUS ENTERICUS

• Digestive function
• Protective function
• Activator function
• Hemopoitic function
• Hydrolytic process.
 FUNCTIONS OF SMALL INTESTINE.
• Mechanical function • Activator function
• Secretary function • Hemopoietic function
• Hormonal function • Hydrolytic function
• Digestive function • Absorptive functions.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Malabsorption syndrome.
• Enteritis.
• Steatorrhea.
• Celiac disease.
 LARGE INTESTINE AND ITS PARTS.

• Large intestine or colon extends from ileocecal valve up to

anus.
• PARTS OF LARGE INTESTINE:
• Cecum with appendix
• Ascending colon
• Transverse colon
• Descending colon
• Sigmoid colon or pelvic colon
• Rectum
• Anal canal.
DRAWING OF LARGE INTESTINE IS LOCATED IN THE DRAWING.
 FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE.
• Absorptive function’
• Formation of feces.
• Excretory function
• Secretary functions.
• Synthetic function.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY,
• Diarrhea
• Constipation
• Appendicitis
• Ulcerative colitis.
 MOVEMENT OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL
TRAIT.
• Mastication or chewing is the first mechanical
process is the gastrointestinal tract, by which the
food substances are torn or cut into small
particles and crushed or ground into a soft bolus.
• MOVEMENTS OF MASTICATION:
• Opening and closure of mouth.
• Rotational movement of jaw.
• Protraction and retraction of jaw.
 DEGLUTITION.
• Deglutition or swallowing is the process by which
food moves from mouth into stomach.
• STAGES OF DEGLUTITION:
• Oral stage when food moves from mouth to
Pharynx.
• Pharyngeal stage when food moves from pharynx
to esophagus.
• Esophageal stage when food moves from
esophagus to stomach.
THIS IS ONLY THE FIRST STAGE AND OTHERS FOLLOWS FROM IT.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Dysphagia {difficulty in swallowing}
• Achalasia {failure of lower esophageal
sphincter to relax during swallowing,}
 TYPES OF MOVEMENTS IN STOMACH.
• Hunger contraction
• Receptive relaxation
• Peristalsis
• FACTORS AFFECTING GASTRIC EMPTYING.
• Volume of gastric content
• Consistency of gastric content
• Chemical composition
• PH of gastric content
• Osmolar concentration of gastric content.
 HORMONES INHIBITING GASTRIC MOTILITY
AND EMPTYING.
• Vasoactive intestinal peptide
• Gastric inhibiting peptide
• Secretin
• Cholecystokin
• Somatostatin
• Peptide YY
 VOMITING
• Vomiting or emesis is the abnormal emptying of
stomach and upper part of the intestine through
esophagus and mouth.
• CAUSES OF VOMITING.
• Presence of irritating contents of GIT.
• Mechanical stimulation of pharynx
• Pregnancy.
• Excessive intake of alcohol’
• Nauseating sight ,odor or taste,
 MOVEMENTS OF SMALL INTESTINE.

• Movement of small intestine are essential for

mixing he chyme with digestive juices,
propulsion of food and absorption.
• TYPES OF MOVEMENTS IN SMALL INTESTINE.
• Mixing movements {segmentation}
• Propulsive movements
• Peristalsis in fasting {migrating motor complex}
• Movement of villi.
 LARGE INTESTINE.
• It shows sluggish movements which are
important for mixing ,propulsive and
absorptive functions. It does the same
functions with small intestine.
A SECTION OF THIS DRAWING REPRESENTS LARGE INTESTINE.
 KIDNEY
• Kidney produce the urine. Ureters transport the urine to
urinary bladder. Urinary bladder stores the urine until it
is voided {emptied}.Urine is voided from bladder through
Urethra.
• FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY:
• Role in hemeostasis
• Hemopoietic function
• Endocrine function
• Regulation of blood pressure
• Regulation of blood calcium level.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A KIDNEY.
 NEPHRON
• Nephron is the structural and functional unit
of kidney. Each kidney consists of 1 to 1.3
millions of nephrons. Life span decreases after
about 45 to 50 years of age.
• PARTS OF NEPHRON.
• Renal corpuscle
• Renal tubule
A NEPHRON.
 CLASSIFICATION OF NEPHRONS.
• Cortical nephrons
• Juxtamedullary nephrons.
 FEATURES OF THE TWO TYPES OF
NEPHRONS.
• CORTICAL NEPHRON • JUXTAMEDULLARY N.
• 85% • 15%
• Outer cortex near • Inner cortex near
periphery. periphery.
• Short • Long
• Hairpin bend penetrates • Hairpin bend penetrates
only up to outer zone of up to the tip of papilla
medulla. • Vasa recta.
• Peritubular capillaries. • Concentration of urine
• Formation of urine and formation of urine.
STRUCTURE OF RENAL CORPUSCLE.
• Renal corpuscle is formed by two portions:
• Glomerulus
• Bowman capsule.
RENAL CORPUSCLE.
 TUBULAR PORTION OF NEPHRON.
• Proximal convoluted tubule.
• Loop of Henle
• Distal convoluted tubule
• LOOP OF HENLE: It consists of :
• Descending limb
• Hairpin bend
• Ascending limb
• DESCENDING LIMB: It is made up of two segments:
• Thick descending segment.
• Thin descending segment.
 PASSAGE OF URINE.
• At the inner zone of medulla, the straight
collecting ducts from each medullary pyramid
unite to form papillary ducts or ducts of
bellini, which open to a “V” shaped area called
papilla. Urine from each medullary pyramid is
collected in the papilla. From here, it is
drained into a minor calyces unite to form one
major calyx. Each kidney has got about 8
minor calyces and 2 to 3 major calyces.
 PASSAGE OF URINE CONTS.
• From minor calyces urine passes through
major calyces which open into the pelvic of
the ureter. Pelvis is the expanded portion of
ureter present in the renal sinuses. From renal
pelvic, urine passes through remaining portion
of ureter and reaches urinary bladder.
 JUSTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS.
• It is a specialized organ situated near the
glomerulus of each nephron. {justa= near}
• STRUCTURE OF JUSTAGLOMERULAR
APPARATUS:
• Macula densa
• Extraglomerular messangial cells
• Justaglomerular cells.
JUSTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS,
 FUNCTIONS OF JUSTA GLOMERULAR
APPARATUS.
• Secretion of hormones
• Regulation of glomerular blood flow.
• Regulation of glomerular filtration rate.
 RENAL BLOOD VESSELS
In the adult, during resting condition both the kidneys receive 1300 ml of
blood per minute or about 26% of the cardiac output.
PROCESSES OF URINE FORMATION.
• When blood passes through glomerular capillaries, the plasma is
filtered into the bowman capsule. This process is called
glomerular filtration.
• Filtrate from Bowman capsule passes through the tubular
portion of the nephron. While passing through the tubule, the
filtrate undergoes various changes both in quality and quantity.
Many wanted substances like glucose, amino acids, water and
electrolytes are reabsorbed from the tubules. The process is
called tubular reabsorption.
• Some unwanted substances are secreted into the tubule from
peritubular blood vessels. This process is called tubular secretion
or excretion.
PROCESS OF URINE FORMATION.
PROCESSES OF URINE FORMATION.
• Glomerular filtration.
• Tubular reabsorption
• Tubular secretion.
• GLOMERULAR FILTRATION: It is the process by
which the blood is filtered while passing through
the glomerular capillaries by filtration membrane.
The glomerular filtrate contains all the substances
present in plasma proteins. Normal glomerular
filtration rate is 125ml/minute or about 180 l/day.
 PRESSURE DETERMINING FILTRATION.

• Glomerular capillary pressure {60 mmHg}

• Colloidal osmotic pressure in the glomeruli
{25 mmHg}
• Hydrostatic pressure in the bowman capsule.
{15 mmHg}
 FACTORS REGULATING G.F.R.
• Renal blood flow.
• Glomerular capillary pressure.
• Colloidal osmotic pressure.
• Constriction of efferent
arteriole.
• Sympathetic stimulation with
noradrenalin.
• Permeability of capillary
membrane.
• Hormonal factors eg
Dopamine and noradrenalin.
• Tubuloglomerular feedback.
• Constriction of afferent
arteriole.
• Hydrostatic pressure in
bowman capsule.
• Systemic arterial pressure.
• Surface area of capillary
membrane.
• Contraction of glomerular
messengial cells.
 TUBULAR REABSORPTION.
• It is the process by which water and other substances are transported from
renal tubules back to the blood. Essential substances such as glucose,
amino acid, and vitamins are completely reabsorbed from renal tubule
whereas the unwanted substances like metabolic waste products are not
reabsorbed and excreted through urine.
• SITE OF REABSORPTION:
• Substances reabsorbed from proximal convoluted tubule.
• Substances reabsorbed from loop of henle.
• Substances reabsorbed from distal convoluted tubule.
• FACTORS REGULATING TUBULAR REABSORPTION:
• Glomerulotubular balance.
• Hormonal factors e.g.. Antidiuretic hormone.
• Nervous factor eg. Angiotensin 11.
 TUBULAR SECRETION.
• It is the process by which the substances are
transported from blood into the renal tubules.
Substances excreted are ;
potassium,ammonia,hydrogen and urea.
 COUNTERCURRENT FLOW.
• A countercurrent system is a system of “U”
shaped tubules in which the flow of fluid is in
opposite direction in two limbs of the “U”
shaped tubules.
• DIVISION OF COUNTERCURRENT SYSTEM.
• Countercurrent multiplier formed by loop of
henle.
• Countercurrent exchanger formed by vasa recta.
 COUNTERCURRENT MULTIPLIER.
• Loop of henle is responsible for development of hyperosmolarity
of medullary interstitial fluid and medullary gradient. Due to the
concentration gradient, the sodium and chlorine ions diffuse
from medullary interstitium into the descending limb of henle
loop and reach the ascending limb again through hairpin bend.
• Apart from this, there is regular addition of more and more new
sodium and chlorine ions into descending limb by constant
filtration. Thus, the reabsorption of sodium chloride from
ascending limb and addition of new sodium chloride ions into
the filtrate increases or multiply the osmolarity of medullary
interstitial fluid and medullary gradient. Hence, it is called
countercurrent multiplier.
COUNTER CURRENT MULTIPLIER.
 COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGER.
• It is responsible for the maintenance of medullary
gradient, which is developed by countercurrent
multiplier. The blood flows very slowly through vasa
recta. So a large quantity of sodium chloride accumulate
in descending limb of vasa recta and flows slowly
towards ascending limb of vasa recta, the concentration
of sodium chloride increases very much. This causes
diffusion of sodium chloride into the medullary
interstituim. Simultaneously, water from medullary
interstitum enters the ascending limb of vasa recta. And
the cycle is repeated.
 COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGER CONTS.

• Recycling the urea also occurs through vasa recta.

From medullary interstitum, along with sodium
chloride, urea also enters the descending limb of
vasa recta. When blood passes through ascending
limb of vasa recta, urea diffuses back into the
medullary interstitum along with sodium chloride.
Thus, sodium chloride and urea are exchanged for
water between the ascending and descending limbs
of vasa recta, hence this system is called counter
current exchanger,
 ROLE OF ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE.

• Final concentration of urine is achieved by the

action of ADH. Normally, the distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct are not permeable
to water. But the presence of ADH makes
them permeable, in water reabsorption.
SUMMARY OF URINE CONCENTRATION.
• BOWMAN CAPSULE:
• Glomerular filtrate collected at the bowman capsule is
isotonic to plasma. This is because it contains all the
substances of plasma except proteins. Osmolarity of the
filtrate at Bowman capsule is 300 Mosm/L.
• PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE.
• When the filtrate flows through proximal convoluted
tubule, there is active reabsorption of sodium and chloride
followed by obligatory reabsorption of water. In proximal
convoluted tubules, the fluid is isotonic to plasma {300L}.
 SUMMARY CONTS.
• THICK DESCENDING SEGMENTS:
• When the fluid passes from proximal convoluted tubule into the
thick descending segment, water is reabsorbed from tubule into
outer medullary interstitum by means of osmosis. The osmolarity
of the fluid inside this segment is between 450 and 600 Mosm/L.
That means the fluid is slightly hypertonic to plasma.
• THIN DESCENDING SEGMENT OF HENLE LOOP.
• This segment is highly permeable to water and so the osmolarity
of tubule fluid becomes equal to that of the surrounding
medullary interstitum. This segment of fluid is hypertonic to
plasma {600-1200}.
 THE SUMMARY CONTS:
• THIN ASCENDING SEGMENT OF THE HENLE LOOP: Due to
the concentration gradient, sodium chloride diffuses out of the tubular
fluid and osmolarity decreases to 400 Mosm/L. The fluid in this
segment is slightly hypertonic to plasma.
• THICK ASCENDING SEGMENT.
• This segment is impermeable to water but there is active reabssorption
of sodium and chloride from this segment. The osmolarity is between
150 and 200 Mosm/L. The fluid inside becomes hypotonic to plasma.
• DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE AND COLLECTING DUCT.
• In the presence of ADH, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
become permeable to water resulting in water reabsorption and final
concentration of urine . The osmolerity is 1200 Mosm/L and the urine
becomes hypertonic to plasma.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Diuresis
• Poly urea {frequent voiding}
• Syndrome of inappropriate Hypersecreation of
ADH {SIADH}
• Nephrogenic Diabetes Inspidus.
 COMPOSITIONS OF URINE.
• Urine consist of water and solids. Solids
include organic and inorganic substances.
Organic substances are: urea {400], uric
acid{4}, creatinine[10}, ammonia{40}.
Inorganic substances are: sodium{200},
Phosphate{25}, sulphate{50}.
 RENAL FUNCTION TEST.
• Renal Function Test are the group of tests that
are performed to assess the functions of
kidney.
• TYPES OF RENAL FUNCTION TESTS:
• Examination of urine alone
• Examination of blood alone
• Examination of blood and urine.
 EXAMINATION OF URINE.
• Routine examination of urine or urinalysis is a group diagnostic tests performed on the sample of
urine. Urinalysis is done by physical examination, microscopic examination and chemical analysis.
• PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF URINE:
• Volume
• Color
• Appearance
• Specific gravity.
• Osmolarity
• PH and reaction.
• MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION:
• Red blood cell
• White blood cell.
• Epithelial cells
• Casts
• Crystals
• Bacteria.
 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF URINE.
• Glucose{glycosuria}
• Protein{protinuria; albuminuria}
• Ketone bodies{ketonuria}
• Bilirubin{bilirubinuria}
• Urobilinogen{hemolytic jaundice}
• Bile salts
• Blood{hematuria}
• Hemoglobin{hemoglobinuria}
• Nitrate.
 EXAMINATION OF BLOOD.
• Normal value of plasma proteins are:
• Total protein: 7.3 g/dl {6.4 to 8.3g/dl}
• Serum albumin {4.7g/dl}
• Serum globulin {2.3g/dl}
• Fibrinogen {0.3g/dl}
• Note well that the level of plasma proteins is altered during renal failure.
• NORMAL VALUES FOR THE FOLLOWING ARE:
• Urea {25 to 40mg/dl}
• Uric acid {2.5mg/dl}
• Creatinine {0.5 to 1.5mg/dl}
• Note well that the normal level of these substances increases in renal
failure.
 RENAL FAILURE.
• Renal failure refers to failure of excretory
functions of kidney. It is mainly characterized
by decrease in glomerular filtration rate {GFR}
• It is divided into:
• Acute renal failure
• Chronic renal failure
 ACUTE RENAL FAILURE.
• Acute renal failure is the abrupt or sudden stoppage of
renal functions. It is often reversible within few days to
few weeks.
• CAUSES FO ACUTE RENAL FAILURE:
• Acute nephritis.
• Renal ischemia
• Acute tubular necrosis
• Severe transfusion reactions
• Low blood pressure
• Blockage of ureter {renal stone}
 FEATURES OF ACUTE RENAL FAILURE.
• Oliguria {decreased urinary output}
• Anuria { cessation of urine formation]
• Proteinuria {appearance of protein} including
albuminuria { excretion of albumin in urine}
• Hematuria {presence of blood in urine}
• Edema due to increased volume of ECF.
• Hypertension
• Acidosis due to retention of metabolic end products.
• Coma due to severe acidosis.
 CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE.

• It is the progressive , long standing and irreversible

impairment of renal functions.
• CAUSES OF CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE.
• Chronic nephritis
• Renal calculi {kidney stone}
• Urethral constriction
• Hypertension
• Atherosclerosis
• Tuberculosis
• Slow poisoning by drugs or metals.
FEATURES OF CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE.

• Uremia {excess accumulation of end products

of protein metabolism like urea, creatinine}
• Acidosis
• Edema
• Blood loss
• Anemia
• Hyperparathyroidism.
 MALE URETHRA.
• Male urethra has both urinary function and
reproductive function. It is about 20 cm long.
After origin from bladder it transverses the
prostrate gland which lies below the bladder and
then runs through the penis.
• It is divided into three parts:
• Prostatic urethra
• Membranous urethra
• Spongy urethra.
MALE URETHRA
 FEMALE URETHRA.
• Female urethra has only urinary function and
it carries only urine. It is shorter and narrower
than male urethra. It is about 3.5 to 4cm long.
After origin from bladder, it transverses
through urogenital diaphragm and runs along
anterior wall of vagina. Then it terminates at
external orifice of urethra, which is located
between clitoris and vaginal opening.
FEMALE URETHRA
 HIGHER CENTERS FOR MICTURITION.

• Spinal centers for micturition are present in

lumber and sacral segments. These spinal
centers are regulated by higher centers.
Centers in the mid brain and cerebral cortex
inhibit the micturition by suppressing the
spinal micturition centers. Centers in Pons
facilitate micturition through spinal centers.
Some centers in cerebral cortex also facilitate
micturition.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY.
• Atonic Bladder: It is the urinary bladder with loss of tone
in detrusor muscle.
• Automatic bladder: It is the urinary bladder characterized
by hyperactive micturition reflex with loss of voluntary
control.
• Uninhibited neurogenic bladder: It is the urinary bladder
with frequent and uncontrollable micturition caused by
lesion in mid brain.
• Nocturnal Micturition: It is the involuntary voiding of
urine during night . It is known as enuresis or bed wetting.