Lecture Notes 2

CHAPTER 2
Finding the Roots of

Equations
CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

Introduction
• Years ago, you learned to use the quadratic formula

b  
x1,2  where   b 2  4ac (1)
2a
• to find the roots of
f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c  0 (2)
• The values calculated with Eq. (1) are called the

“roots” of Eq. (2).

Introduction
• They represent the values of x that make Eq. (2)

equal to zero.
• Thus, we can define the root of an equation as the
value of x that makes f (x) = 0.
• For this reason, roots are sometimes called the
“zeros’’ of the equation.
• Although the quadratic formula is handy for
solving Eq. (2), there are many other functions for
which the root cannot be determined so easily.

Introduction
• Linear: Independent variable appears to the first

power only, either alone or multiplied by a
constant
Example: f(x)=2x-3…………..root=3/2
• Nonlinear:
– Polynomial: Independent variable appears
raised to powers of positive integers only
Example: f(x)=x2-3x+2……..roots=1 and 2
– General non-linear: all other equations
Example: f ( x)  e x  sin( x) How to find the root?
Introduction
• For these cases, the numerical methods must be

used to obtain the answer.
• Generally two kind of methods are used to obtain

the roots of functions:
1. Bracketing Methods
2. Open Methods

Introduction
• Bracketing methods: As the name implies, these

are based on two initial guesses that bracket the
root. Those are on either side of the root.
• Open methods: These methods can involve one or

more initial guesses, but there is no need for them
to bracket the root.

Introduction
• For well-posed problems, the bracketing methods

always work but converge slowly.
• In contrast, the open methods do not always work

(i.e., they can diverge), but when they do they
usually converge quicker.
• In both cases, initial guesses are required. These

may naturally arise from the physical problem you
are solving.
2.1. Bracketing Methods
• The functions change signs in the existence of root.
f(xu) f(x)
xl root
xu
f(xl)
• As shown in Figure, f(xl) is negative but f(xu) positive

value. Therefore the function f(x) is a root between xl
and xu
2.1.1 Graphical Methods
• A simple method for obtaining an estimate of the

root of the equation f (x) = 0 is to make a plot of
the function and observe where it crosses the x
axis.
• This point, which represents the x value for which

f (x) = 0, provides a rough approximation of the
root.

• Example 2.1
• The equation for free-falling body near the earth
surface are given as follows:
mg    t 
c
v(t )  1  e  m  
c  

• Use the graphical approach to determine the mass
of the bungee jumper with a drag coefficient of
c=4 kg/m to have a velocity of v=36 m/s after t=4 s
of free fall. Note: The acceleration of gravity is
g=9.81 m/s2.
• If the given function equalize to zero:
mg    t 
c
m
f ( m)   1  e v  0
c  

• The following MATLAB code sets up a plot of f(m) versus
mass
• c = 4; g = 9.81; v = 36; t = 4;
• m = 50:150;
• f = (m*g/c).*(1-exp(-c*t./m))-v;
• plot(m,f),grid

• The function crosses the m axis between 90 and 95
kg
1.5
0.5
0
f(m)
-0.5
-1 Root
-1.5
-2
-2.5
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
m
• The function crosses the m axis between 90 and 95
kg
2.1.2 Bisection Method
• Bracketing methods. As the name implies, these are based

on two initial guesses that bracket the root. Those are on
either side of the root.
• In Example 2.1, you observed that f (x) changed sign on
opposite sides of the root. In general, if f (x) is real and
continuous in the interval from xl to xu and f (xl ) and f (xu)
have opposite signs, that is,
f (xl )* f (xu) < 0
• Then there is at least one real root between xl and xu .

• As observed from Figure, the function is negative at xl=80
but positive at xu=120. That is f (xl ) and f (xu) have opposite
signs. 1.5
0.5 mg 
f ( m)  1
0
c 
f(m)
-0.5
-1
Root
-1.5
-2
-2.5
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
xl m
xu

• Then the interval between xl and xu is divided two
subinterval as shown. xr is calculated as:
1.5
xl  xu 1
xr  0.5
2 0
f(m )
-0.5
• xr is first estimation -1
for the root.

-1.5
-2
-2.5
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
xl m
xu
xr
• Now the root is either between xl and xr (subinterval
1 ) or between xr and xu (subinterval 2).
1.5
0.5
0
f(m )
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
xl m
xu
xr
Subinterval 1 Subinterval 2

• If f (xl )* f (xr) < 0, the root in subinterval 1 (between xl and xr). Then xr is
the new xu value.
• Otherwise (If f (xl )* f (xr) > 0) the root in subinterval 2 (between xr and
xu). Then xr is the new xl value.
• New xr value is calculated using new xl and xu . And contunie same

procedure until we reach
a  s
• where;
new old
xr  xr
a  new
xr
 s  (0.5 102 n )% n is significant figures.

• ALGORITHM
• Step1: Choose lower xl and upper xu guesses for

the root, so that the function changes sign over the
interval f (xl )* f (xu) < 0.
• Step2: An estimate of the root xr is determined by:
xl  xu
xr 
2
• Step3: Make the following evaluation to determine in
which subinterval the root lies.
i. If f (xl )* f (xr) < 0, the root lies in the subinterval
1(between [xl ,xr]). Therefore set xu=xr and return to
Step 2.
i. If f (xl )* f (xr) > 0, the root lies in the upper

subinterval 2 ( between [xr , xu]). Therefore set xl=xr
and return to Step 2.
ii. Contunie the iterations until a  s

Example
• The function f ( x)  x3  4 x 2  10 has a root between

[1,2] since f(1)=-5 and f(2)=14. Find the root using
bisection. εs=0.03
• Solution:
xl  1 xu  2 f (1)  5 f (2)  14
xl  xu 1  2
xr    1.5 f ( xr )  f (1.5)  2.375
2 2

Solution
 Check
f ( xl )  f ( xr )  (5)  (2.375)  11.875  0
 Then new xu=1.5 and xl=1 (root is between 1 and

1.5)
xl  xu 1  1.5
xr    1.25 f ( xr )  f (1.25)  1.80
2 2
 Approximate Error
xrnew  xrold 1.25  1.5
a  new
  0.2   s
xr 1.25
Solution
 Check
f ( xl )  f ( xr )  ( 5)  (1.8)  9  0
 Then new xl=1.25 and xu=1.5 (root is between 1.25

and 1.5)
xl  xu 1.25  1.5
xr    1.375 f ( xr )  f (1.375)  0.16
2 2
 Approximate Error
xrnew  xrold 1.375  1.25
a  new
  0.09   s
xr 1.375
Solution
• New iteration
f ( xr )  f (1.375)  0.16
f ( xl )  f ( xr )  (1.80)  (0.16)  0.288  0
• Then new xl=1.25 and xu=1.375 (root is between

1.25 and 1.375)
1.25  1.375
xr   1.3125
2
xrnew  xrold 1.3125  1.375
a  new
  0.048   s
xr 1.3125
Solution
• New iteration
f ( xr )  f (1.3125)  0.84
f ( xl )  f ( xr )  (1.80)  (0.84)  1.5  0
• Then new xl=1.3125 and xu=1.375 (root is between

1.3125 and 1.375)
1.3125  1.375
xr   1.34375
2
xrnew  xrold 1.34375  1.3125
a  new
  0.024   s Root=1.34375
xr 1.34375
Example
• The equation for free-falling body near the earth

surface are given as follows:
mg    t 
c
v (t )  1  e  m  
c  

• Calculate drag coefficient c for given values,

m=68.1kg, v=40 m/s, t=10sec and g=9.81 m/s2
using bisection method. (cl=12, cu=16 and
εs=0.5%)

Example
• Subtituting the given values in the equation, we can get
68.1 9.81  
 c 

68.1
10 
40  1  e   
c  
 
• Then rearranging the equation
667.38
c
1  e 0.1468 c
  40  0

• Step 1
f (12)  6.047 f (16)  2.27

12  16 f (14)  1.57
xr   14
2
• Check f (12)  f (14)  6.047 1.57  9.5  0
• The root between 14 and 16
• Step 2
14  16 f (15)  0.425
xr   15
2
• Check f (14)  f (15)  1.565  (0.425)  0.665  0
15  14
a  100  6.667%
15
• The root between 14 and 15
• Step 3
14  15
xr   14.5
2
• Check f (14)  f (14.5)  (1.565)  (0.5489)  0.8591  0
14.5  15
a   100  3.45%
14.5
• The root between 14.5 and 15
Iteration xl xu xr εa (%)
1 12 16 14 (14-12)/
14
2 14 16 15 6.67
3 14 15 14.5 3.45
4 14.5 15 14.75 1.70
5 14.75 15 14.875 0.84
6 14.75 14.875 14.8125 0.42

Matlab Code for Bisection Method
xl=input('enter your guess for lower bound=');
xu=input('enter your guess for upper bound=');
es=input('enter relative error=');
fxl = f(xl);
fxu = f(xu);
ea=100;
iter=0;
xr=xl
disp([' no of iteration root error'])
while ea > es
xro=xr
xr = (xl +xu)/2;
fxr = f(xr);
if fxl * fxr < 0
xu = xr;
fxu = fxr;
else
xl = xr; function [ y] = f( x )
fxl = fxr; y=(667.38/x)*(1-exp(-0.1468*x))-40;
end end
ea=abs((xr-xro)/xr);
iter=iter+1;
disp([iter,ea,xr])
end
Solution with Matlab
• enter your guess for lower bound=12
• enter your guess for upper bound=16
• enter relative error=0.005
• no of iteration root error
• 1.0000 0.1429 14.0000
• 2.0000 0.0667 15.0000
• 3.0000 0.0345 14.5000
• 4.0000 0.0169 14.7500
• 5.0000 0.0084 14.8750
• 6.0000 0.0042 14.8125

False Position Method
• False position (also called the linear interpolation method)
is another well-known bracketing method.
• It is very similar to bisection but it uses a different strategy
for new root estimate. it locates the root by joining f (xl )
and f (xu) with a straight line (Figure).
f ( xl ) f ( xu )

xr  xl xr  xu

False Position Method
• The intersection of this line with the x axis represents an
improved estimate of the root.
• Thus, the shape of the function influences the new root

estimate. Using similar triangles, the intersection of the
straight line with the x axis can be estimated as
f ( xu )( xl  xu )
xr  xu 
f ( xl )  f ( xu )
• Only the difference between bisection and false position

method is to calculate xr
Example
• Use the false-position method to determine the

root of the same equation investigated previous
Free falling example
667.38
x
1  e 0.1468 x
  40  0

Solution
• First iteration
xl  12 f ( xl )  6.067
xu  16 f ( xu )  2.269
f ( xu )( xl  xu ) 2.269(12  16)
xr  xu   16   14.91
f ( xl )  f ( xu ) 6.067  (2.269)
• Second iteration
f ( xl )  f ( xr )  f (12)  f (14.91)  (6.067)  ( 0.254)
 1.543
Solution
• Therefore the root between xl and xr
xl  12 f ( xl )  6.067
xu  14.91 f ( xu )  0.254
0.254(12  14.91)
xr  14.91   14.794
6.067  (0.254)
14.794  14.91
a   0.0079
14.794

• xl=input('enter your guess for lower bound=');
• xu=input('enter your guess for upper bound=');
• es=input('enter relative error=');
• fxl = f(xl);
• fxu = f(xu);
• ea=100;
• iter=0;
• xr=xl;
• disp([' no of iteration root error'])
• while ea > es
• xro=xr;
• xr = xu-fxu*(xl-xu)/(fxl-fxu); Only calculation of xr is d

• fxr = f(xr); from Bisection method
• if fxl * fxr < 0
• xu = xr;
• fxu = fxr;
• else function [ y] = f( x )
• xl = xr; y=(667.38/x)*(1-exp(-0.1468*x))-40;
• fxl = fxr; end
• end
• ea=abs((xr-xro)/xr);
• iter=iter+1;
• disp([iter,xr,ea])
• end CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN
• enter your guess for lower bound=12

• enter your guess for upper bound=16
• enter relative error=0.005
• no of iteration root error
• 1.0000 14.9097 0.1952
• 2.0000 14.7925 0.0079
• 3.0000 14.7800 0.0008

OPEN METHODS
• Fixed (One) Point Iterations
• Open methods employ a formula to predict the root. Such a

formula can be developed for simple fixed (one) point
iteration by rearranging the function f (x) = 0 so that x is on
the left-hand side of the equation:
x  g ( x)

• Examples:
x2  2 x  3  0
x2  3
• Can be simply manupilated to yeild as: x
2
• whereas sin x = 0 could be put into the fixed point

form by adding x to both sides to yield
x  x  sin( x)

Fixed (One) Point Iterations
• The utility of x=g(x) is that it provides a formula to predict a

new value of x as a function of an old value of x. Thus, given an
initial guess at the root xi, x=g(x) can be used to compute a
new estimate xi+1 as expressed by the iterative formula:
xi 1  g ( xi )
• As with other iterative formulas in this book, the approximate

error for this equation can be determined using the error
estimator
xi 1  xi
a   s
xi 1
Example
• Use simple fixed-point iteration to locate the root

of f (x) = e−x − x.
• The function can be separated directly and expressed in

the form of Equation as:
xi+1 = e−xi
• Starting with an initial guess of x0 = 0, this iterative

equation can be applied to compute
Solution
i  0  x1  e 0  1
i  1  x2  e  x1  0.367879
i  2  x3  e  x2  0.692201
i  3  x4  e  x3  0.500472
The value is converging to the

root=0.56714329

Matlab code
• xn=0;
• es=1;
• ea=2*es;
• i=0;
• disp([' no root ea'])
• while es<ea
• x0=xn;
• xn=f(x0);
• ea=abs(((xn-x0)/xn)*100);
• i=i+1;
function [ y ] = f( x );
• disp([i xn ea])
y=exp(-x);
• end end

• No root Error
• 1 1 100
• 2.0000 0.3679 171.8282
• 3.0000 0.6922 46.8536
• 4.0000 0.5005 38.3091
• 5.0000 0.6062 17.4468
• 6.0000 0.5454 11.1566
• 7.0000 0.5796 5.9034
• 8.0000 0.5601 3.4809
• 9.0000 0.5711 1.9308
• 10.0000 0.5649 1.1089

Example
• Consider a simple example

f ( x)  x 2  2 x  3
• This function has roots of x1=3 and x2=-1
• Rearranging the function to a form

x  2x  3 so g ( x)  2 x  3
Starting with x1=4 performing the iteration

xi 1  2 xi  3
Solution
• This iteration converge to x=3 as follows

i  1  x2  2  4  3  3.316 xi 1  2 xi  3
i  2  x3  2  3.316  3  3.104
i  3  x4  3.011 x1=4
i  4  x5  3.004
.
. Home Exercise:
i  x3 Perform these
iterations using Matlab
code!!!
Solution
• If we arrange the function as follows:
3
x( x  2)  3  x
x2
• Starting with x1=4 performing the iteration
3
xi 1 
xi  2

Solution
• This iteration converge to x=-1 as follows

3 3
i 1  x2   1.5 xi 1 
x1  2 xi  2
3
i2  x3   6
x2  2
3
i3  x4   0.375
x3  2
i4  x5  1.263
Home Exercise:
.
Perform these
.
iterations using Matlab
i  x  1
code!!!
Solution
• If we arrange the function as follows:

x2  3
2x  x2  3  x
2
• Starting with x1=4 performing the iteration
xi 2  3
xi 1 
2

Solution
• This iteration will not converge to any value

(diverging) x 2 3
xi 1  i
x12  3 42  3 2
i  1  x2    6.5
2 2
x2 2  3
i  2  x3   19.6
2
x32  3
i  3  x4   191
2
. Home Exercise:
. Perform these iterations
i  x using Matlab code!!!
• Note that: Convergence only occurs when the
absolute value of the slope y2=g(x) is less than the
slope of y1=x, that is when g ( x)  1
a) g ( x)  2 x  3 g ( x)  (2 x  3) 1/2
g (4)  (2  4  3) 1/ 2  0.3015  1

Substituting x=4
Converging

b) 3 3
g ( x)  g ( x)  
x2 ( x  2) 2
Substituting x=4
3
g (4)  2  0.75  1
2 Converging
c)
x2  3
g ( x)x=4
Substituting  g ( x)  x
2
g (4)  4  4  1
Diverging
Newton Raphson Method
• Perhaps the most widely used of all root-locating formulas
is the Newton-Raphson equation (Figure). If the initial
guess at the root is xi, a tangent can be extended from the
point [xi, f (xi)]. The point where this tangent crosses the x
axis usually represents an improved estimate of the root.

Newton Raphson Method
• The Newton-Raphson method can be derived on

the basis of this geometrical interpretation. As in
Figure the first derivative at x is equivalent to the
slope:
• Which can be rearranged to yeild:
Newton Raphson
formula
Example
• Use the Newton-Raphson method to estimate the

root of
f ( x)  e  x  x
employing an initial guess of x1=0
Solution
• The first derivative of the function is:
f ( x)  e  x  1
• Which can be substituted in the Newton-Raphson
formula to get:
Solution
•Starting with an initial guess of x1=0, this iterative

equation can be applied to compute

Matlab Code
xn=0;
es=0.001;
ea=10;
i=1;
while es<ea function [ y ] = fd( x )
x0=xn; y=-exp(-x)-1;
end
xn=x0-f(x0)/fd(x0);
ea=abs((xn-x0)/xn);
disp([ i, xn, ea]) function [ y ] = f( x )
i=i+1; y=exp(-x)-x;
end end

• i root error
• 1.0000 0.5000 1.0000
• 2.0000 0.5663 0.1171
• 3.0000 0.5671 0.0015
• 4.0000 0.5671 0.0000

Example
• Calculate the root of following function using

Newton Raphson method. (x1=1 and εs=0.001)
f ( x)  xe x  1
• Solution
Newton Raphson Formula
Derivative of Function f ( x)  e x  xe x  ( x  1)e x
Iterative formula for

xi e xi  1
xi 1  xi 
solution ( xi  1)e xi
Solution
• The solution for each step is given in following Table
i xi f(xi) f’(xi) xi+1 εa

1 1 1.7188 5.4366 0.6839 0.4621
2 0.6839 0.3553 3.3370 0.5775 0.1844
3 0.5775 0.0287 2.8102 0.5672 0.018
4 0.5672 0.00024 2.7636 0.5671 0.00017
• Note that in the last step εa< εs (0.00017<0.001) Then

iteration is terminated. Home Exercise:
The root=0.5671 Perform these iterations
using Matlab code!!!
Example (Test 1 , 2014-15)
The following equation can be used to compute the oxygen level c (mg/L)
in a river downstream from a sewage discharge:
c = 10 − 20(e−0.15x − e−0.5x )
Determine the distance downstream (x) where the oxygen level is c=5
mg/L. Use Newton Raphson Method, Develop a while loop to determine
your answer. (εs=0.01 x0=2) . Each step of iteration, calculate the root (xi)
and approximate error and write the given Table below. Prove your
answer plotting the function between 0<x<2.

Solution
xn=2; 5
es=0.001; 4
ea=10 3
i=0
2
disp([' no root ea'])
while es<ea 1
x0=xn; 0
xn=x0-f(x0)/fd(x0); -1
ea=abs(((xn-x0)/xn)); -2
i=i+1; -3
disp([ i xn ea]) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
end
Number
function [ y ] = f( x )
of
y=5-20*(exp(-0.15*x)-exp(-0.5*x)); iteration xi εa
end 1 0.3117 5.4170
2 0.8434 0.6304
function [ y ] = fd( x ) 3 0.9699 0.1304
y=-20*(-0.15*exp(-0.15*x)+0.5*exp(-0.5*x)); 4 0.9762 0.0065
end CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN
Secant Method
• A potential problem in the Newton-Raphson method is the
evaluation of the derivative. Because, there are certain
functions whose derivatives may be extremely difficult or
inconvenient to evaluate. For these cases, the derivative
can be approximated by a backward finite divided
difference, as:
f ( xi )  f ( xi 1 )
f ( xi ) 
xi  xi 1

Secant Method
• Substituting this derivative in the Newton Raphson

formula, following iterative formula is obtained as follows:
Secant Method
Formula
• Notice that the Secant Method Formula requires two initial

estimates of x ( xi and xi-1 requires to get xi+1 ).

Example
• Determine the root of following function using secant

method (εs=0.01 , xi-1=0.5 and xi=0.4)
f ( x)  8sin( x)e  x  1
• Solution
Secant Method
Formula
• i=2 x1=0.5 and x2=0.4 then we can calculate x3 as

follows: f ( x2 )( x1  x2 )
x3  x2 
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
Solution
• The solution for each step is given in following Table
i xi-1 xi f(xi-1) f(xi) xi+1 εa

1 0.5 0.4 1.3263 1.0883 -0.0572 NA
2 0.4 -0.0572 1.0883 -1.4846 0.2066 7.99
3 -0.0572 0.2066 -1.4846 0.3347 0.1581 1.28
4 0.2066 0.1581 0.3347 0.0751 0.1440 0.31
5 0.1581 0.1440 0.0751 -0.0058 0.1450 0.98
6 0.1440 0.1450 -0.0058 0.0001 0.1450 0.007
• Note that in the last step εa< εs (0.007<0.01) Then iteration is

terminated.
The root=0.1450
Matlab Code
x(1)=0.5;
x(2)=0.4;
es=0.01;
ea=10;
i=2;
disp([' i root gx error'])
while es<ea
a=g(x(i))*(x(i)-x(i-1));
b=g(x(i))-g(x(i-1));
x(i+1)=x(i)-a/b;
ea=abs((x(i+1)-x(i))/x(i+1));
i=i+1;
function [y ] = g( x )
disp([i x(i) ea]) y=8*sin(x)*exp(-x)-1;
end end
Example
The tension T in the cable can be represented by

the following formula as a function of x.
T  WLc Lb / Lb 2 x 2  x 4
where Lb=6 m, Lc=4.5 m and W=50 kN

Calculate the distance x for minimum tension (T) in the cable using
Secant Method. (Hint: dT/dx=0)
a) Develop a Matlab code for solution of x (x1=1 x2=2 εs=0.001).
b) Calculate the Minimun Tension in Cable.
c) Plot the T versus x between 1<x<5 and verify your solution.

Solution
• Derivative of the function (dT/dx):
3
dT 1 
  (WLc Lb )( Lb 2 x 2  x 4 ) 2 (2 Lb 2 x  4 x 3 )  0
dx 2
• Then the root of this derivative should be calculated

Solution
x(1)=1; function [y ] = f( x )
x(2)=2; w=50;
es=0.001; lb=6;
lc=4.5;
ea=10; y=-0.5*(w*lb*lc)*(lb^2*x^2-x^4)^
i=2; (-3/2)*(2*lb^2*x-4*x^3);
while ea>es end
a=f(x(i))*(x(i)-x(i-1));
b=f(x(i))-f(x(i-1));
x 4.2426 m
x(i+1)=x(i)-a/b;
Tmin 75 kN
ea=abs((x(i+1)-x(i))/x(i+1));
disp([x(i+1),ea]) Note that: Tmin is calculate
i=i+1; substituting x value in
end the function of
T  WLc Lb / Lb 2 x 2  x 4
Solution
240
220
200
180
160
T (kN)
140
120
100
80 Minimum value
of Tension
60
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
x (m)

Modified Secant Method
• Rather than using two arbitrary values to estimate the

derivative, a fractional perturbation (δ) is used. Then
derivative of the function is estimated as follows:
f ( xi   xi )  f ( xi )
f ( xi ) 
 xi
• If this approximation is substituted in Newton Raphson

Formula, Modified Secant Method Formula is obtained as
follows:

Example

Matlab Code
d=0.01;
x(1)=1;
ea=10; Outputs
es=0.001; i root error
i=1; 2.0000 0.5373 0.8613
disp([' i root error'])
3.0000 0.5670 0.0525
while ea>es
fx=f(x(i)); 4.0000 0.5671 0.0002
fdx=f(x(i)+d*x(i));
x(i+1)=x(i)-(d*x(i)*fx)/(fdx-fx);
ea=abs((x(i+1)-x(i))/x(i+1));
disp([i x(i) ea])
i=i+1;
end

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CHAPTER 2

Finding the Roots of

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• Years ago, you learned to use the quadratic formula

• The values calculated with Eq. (1) are called the

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• They represent the values of x that make Eq. (2)

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• Linear: Independent variable appears to the first

• For these cases, the numerical methods must be

• Generally two kind of methods are used to obtain

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• Bracketing methods: As the name implies, these

• Open methods: These methods can involve one or

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• For well-posed problems, the bracketing methods

• In contrast, the open methods do not always work

• In both cases, initial guesses are required. These

• As shown in Figure, f(xl) is negative but f(xu) positive

• A simple method for obtaining an estimate of the

• This point, which represents the x value for which

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• Bracketing methods. As the name implies, these are based

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

for the root.

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• New xr value is calculated using new xl and xu . And contunie same

 s  (0.5 102 n )% n is significant figures.

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• Step1: Choose lower xl and upper xu guesses for

• Step2: An estimate of the root xr is determined by:

i. If f (xl )* f (xr) > 0, the root lies in the upper

ii. Contunie the iterations until a  s

• The function f ( x)  x3  4 x 2  10 has a root between

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

f ( xl )  f ( xr )  (5)  (2.375)  11.875  0

 Then new xu=1.5 and xl=1 (root is between 1 and

 Then new xl=1.25 and xu=1.5 (root is between 1.25

f ( xl )  f ( xr )  (1.80)  (0.16)  0.288  0

• Then new xl=1.25 and xu=1.375 (root is between

f ( xl )  f ( xr )  (1.80)  (0.84)  1.5  0

• Then new xl=1.3125 and xu=1.375 (root is between

• The equation for free-falling body near the earth

• Calculate drag coefficient c for given values,

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

f (12)  6.047 f (16)  2.27

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• 2.0000 0.0667 15.0000

• 3.0000 0.0345 14.5000

• 4.0000 0.0169 14.7500

• 5.0000 0.0084 14.8750

• 6.0000 0.0042 14.8125

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

CENG 202: NUMERICAL ANALYSIS, DR. SEMIH ERHAN

• Thus, the shape of the function influences the new root