METAL

PROCESSING
TECHNOLOGY
COURSE NR.: METE230130
LECTURER: XUAN TIEN VO

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course is intended to provide basically
knowledge in metal casting (foundry technology),
metal forming as well as metal welding.
The goal of the course is to equip students with the
skills necessary for calculating, design a process
of metal casting, forming as well as welding as the
first phase of metal processing in order to endeavor
the need of the processing.

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course is arranged in three main sections:
+ Foundry technology: calculating and design a
complete casting process.
+ Metal forming: principles of metal forming and
calculating some processes of punching, forging...
+ Welding technology: principles of welding process
and how to calculate and design a manufacturing
process of welding.

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
the course provides students essential knowledge
and skills to decide best solution in specific
situation in the manufacture, for example use of
castings…

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Literature and Reference:
Beeley, Peter (2001). Foundry Technology, Butterworth-
Heinemann, A division of Reed Educational and Professional
Publishing Ltd, Great Britain.
Tschaetsch, Heinz (2005). Metal Forming Practise.
Processes – Machines – Tools, Springer, Germany
(Translated by Anne Koth).

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Literatur and reference:
-Manuscript and ppt. files
-Nguyễn Tiến Đào, Công nghệ chế tạo phôi, NXB Khoa học và Kỹ thuật, 2008
-Hoàng Tùng, Nguyễn Ngọc Thành, Công nghệ chế tạo phôi, NXB giáo dục,
2011
-Nguyễn Thúc Hà, Bùi Văn Hạnh, Giáo trình Công nghệ hàn, NXB giáo dục,
2008
-Nguyễn Mậu Đằng, Công nghệ tạo hình kim loại tấm, Nhà xuất bản khoa học
kỹ thuật, 2006
-Vukota Boljanovic, Sheet Metal Forming Processes and Die Design, Industrial
Press, 2005
-T. Altan, G. Ngaile, and G. Shen, Cold and Hot Forging: Fundamentals and
Applications, ASM international, 2004

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Literature and reference:
-P Rao, Manufacturing Technology: Foundry, Forming And Welding, Tata
McGraw. Hill, 2008

-H.N.Gupta, Manufacturing process, New age international publishes, 2009

-Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and

Technology, Pearson, 2014

-Ammen, The complete handbook of sand casting, MrGraw- Hill,

-Lê Nhương, Rèn và dập nóng , NXB Công nhân kỹ thuật, 1978

-Lê Nhương, Kỹ thuật dập nguội , NXB Công nhân kỹ thuật, 1978

-Nguyễn Xuân Bông, Phạm Quang Lộc, Thiết kế Đúc, Nhà xuất bản khoa học kỹ
thuật, 1978

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Activitives and demands
-„Enjoy“ lecture notes;
-Conducting project in team;
-Researching some related information concerned with the
course;
-Doing Homeworks;
-Making presentations.

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Introduction
What is Metal processing technology?
What are the processes in metal works technology?

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Introduction
The principal
methods of
shaping metals
may be classified
in five groups:
1. Casting: The
production of
shaped articles by
pouring molten
metal into moulds.

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Introduction
2. Mechanical
working: The
shaping of metals
in the solid state by
plastic deformation
above or below the
recrystallization
temperature – by
hot or cold
working: rolling,
punching, dies
forming…

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2. Mechanical
working:
The starting point for
this group of
processes is the cast
ingot or billet and the
metal must possess
the capacity for
plastic deformation.
Much output in this
category is of
standard primary or
semi-finished shapes
such as bars, plates,
sheets and sections,
produced by rolling
and extrusion and
providing the basic
material for further
shaping operations.
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3. Fabrication
by joining
The production of
structural units by the
joining of smaller
components
manufactured in
other ways.
The most notable
method employed is
welding, much of
which is carried out
using components
cut from standard
wrought materials.

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4. Machining
The production of
shaped articles by
cutting from plain or
roughly shaped
forms using machine
tools. Whilst
components are often
shaped wholly by
cutting from blanks,
machining is also
frequently needed as
a finishing operation
to develop accurate
final dimensions on
components formed
by other methods.

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5. Powder
metallurgy
The production of
shaped parts by the
die pressing and
sintering of metal
powders

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CONTENT:
CASTING FORMING WELDING
• Definition and • Stress – Strain • Welding process
classification of concepts • Gas welding
casting • Forging • Arc welding
• Patterns • Rolling process • Resistance
• Moulding and • Extrusion welding
core making • Wire drawing • Metallurgy of
• Gating system, welding
riser • Special welding
• Melting furnaces process
• Pouring • Welding defects
• Cleaning,
defecting and
testing of casting

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PART 1: CASTING TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: CASTING

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 After studying this chapter, students have
PART 1: abilities:
CASTING
TECHNOLOGY Knowledge:
CHAPTER 1: - Distinguish between various types of
CASTING foundry
- Understanding of casting process.
Skills:
- Be able to describe the differences and
similarities various types of casting process
- Defining and listing necessary utilizes in
the casting process.
Attitude:
- Be motivated and involved with casting.

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PART 1: CASTING TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: CASTING
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of foundries
1.3 Sand casting process
1.4 Casting process – Advantages and Limitations
1.5 Casting process utilizes
1.6 Types of Components produced in a foundry
1.7 Brief illustration of stages in casting process

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PART 1: CASTING TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: CASTING
1.1 Introduction
The solid metal mass represents the figure of the hollow
cavity after the cast metal is melted into a liquid, poured into
the cavity and then allowing it to cool and solidify => The
solidified part is also known as a cast.
The hollow cavity corresponds to the shape of the desired
part, is called as the mould
The mould may be made of refractory grains or metal
The mould, made of refractory grains is called as sand
moulds, meanwhile another, made of metal called metal
moulds
The place where this activity is carried out, called as foundry

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 Some of the major
Design
versatility: characteristics which determine
the place of the casting in
Weight range.
There is little
engineering:
weight or size
limitation upon
castings, the only
restriction being
imposed by the
supply of molten
metal and the
means of lifting
and handling the
output.

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Shape and
intricacy
No other process
offers the same
range of
possibilities for the
shaping of
complex features,
whether in respect
of elaborate
contours or of
intricate detail
which would be
expensive or
impossible to
machine.
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Material
composition
Virtually all types of
engineering alloy can
be cast using the
appropriate foundry
techniques.
In the past there were
notable exceptions in
the shape of highly
reactive and
refractory metals, but
even these have
yielded to special
techniques developed
to overcome
difficulties in melting
and casting.

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Tooling costs
Casting is equally
suitable for one-off
or for quantity
production. Since a
foundry pattern
usually takes the
form of a positive
replica, often of
inexpensive material,
its cost compares
favourably with that
of the form tools
required for some
alternative processes.

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The cast
structure
The casting acquires
many of its
metallurgical
characteristics during
solidification. Even
in cases where the
main structural The basic metallographic
features are modified features, for example
in further cooling or grain size and the form
subsequent heat and distribution of
treatment, micro-constituents, are
solidification may themselves sensitive to
still exercise a lasting casting conditions, whilst
influence on structure properties may be further
and properties. influenced by
segregation and
microporosity. 25
Flexibility of
the process
Castings may be
manufactured with
relatively small capital
investment when
compared with the
mills, presses and
similar heavy plant
required in some other
fields.
The basic elements of
foundry operations, on
the other hand, lend
themselves readily to
mechanization and
automation, so that in
larger foundries heavy
capital investment can
be deployed for
quantity production and
low unit costs 26
Definition
-An object made by pouring hot liquid into a container and
leaving it to become solid. (Cambridge Dictionary)
-The production of shaped articles by pouring molten metal
into moulds.
-Components are produced by pouring molten metal into a
contoured cavity followed by cooling to a solid mass. The
cooled solid mass represents the configuration of the cavity
and is the required shape of the component.

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Classification of foundries:

Classification

Based on Based on the

Based on total tonnage Based on the
the type of
the nature of castings type of
metal
of foundry produced mould used
being cast

- Small sized - Sand casting

- Ferrous foundry - Jobbing foundry foundry foundries
- Non-ferrous
- Captive foundry - Medium - Die casting
- Ferrous alloys sized foundry foundries or
- Non ferrous - Mechanised Permanent
foundry - Large sized
alloys mould casting
foundry
foundries

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Sand casting
process
Fig 1.1 Casting
Process – Flow
chart

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Casting process

• Components are produced to near final shape or near net

shape.
• Direct conversion of liquid metal to solid metal
Advantage • Any type of metal or alloy can be easily cast.
s • Any size or shape can be easily produced
• Uniform properties are obtained in the casting throughout
• Process can be easily adopted to automation and mass
production
• Casting are cheaper than components made

• Directional properties to difficult to achieve in the casting

• Some internal defects like pores, cracks cannot be
completely eliminated
Limitations • Cooling of metal takes more time.
• More numbers of variables are involved, hence needs
more attention

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Technical Terms in casting
Fluidity,
Castability,
..............

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Liquid metals and the gating of castings
The pouring of molten metal into the mould is one of the
critical steps in founding, since the behaviour of the liquid
and its subsequent solidification and cooling determine
whether the cast shape will be properly formed, internally
sound and free from defects.
The success of the pouring operation depends partly upon
certain qualities of the metal itself, for example its
composition and temperature, which influence flow, and
partly upon properties and design of the mould, including
the nature of the moulding material and the gating technique
used to introduce the metal into the mould cavity

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Fluidity of liquid metals
-Castability have been used to describe certain aspects of
flow behavior, but the term fluidity is most widely
recognized.
-defined as that quality of the liquid metal which enables it to
flow through mould passages and to fill all the interstices of
the mould, providing sharp outlines and faithful reproduction
of design details.
-fluidity cannot be assessed from individual physical
properties, empirical tests have been devised to measure the
overall characteristics.

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The
measurement
of fluidity
A typical spiral
fluidity test
These are based on
conditions analogous
to the casting of
metals in the foundry
and measure fluidity
as the total distance
covered by molten
metal in standardized
systems of enclosed
channels before
cessation of flow.
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The
measurement
of fluidity
Variations in the
spiral test have been
mainly concerned
with the problem of
obtaining truly
standard conditions
of flow.
This problem has
been approached
through various
designs of reservoir
system to regulate
the pressure head,
and constant speed
pouring devices to
ensure a uniform rate
of metal delivery to
the system.
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The
measurement of
fluidity
Since fluidity
measurements are
also sensitive to
small changes in
thermal properties
and surface
characteristics of
the mould, graphite
and metal moulds
were used by some
investigators in Arrangement of down-gate and pouring basin
attempts to for standard fluidity spiral (Courtesy of
minimize variation American Foundrymen’s Society)
in these factors
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Solidification 1: Crystallization and
the development of cast structure
-Crystallization from a metal melt involves the successive stages of
nucleation and growth.
-The normal metallographic structure determines many of the properties
inherently available from the cast metal.
- the grain size, shape and orientation and the distribution of alloying
elements as well as the underlying crystal structure and its imperfections –
is largely determined during crystallization from the melt.

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and
the development of cast structure

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and
the development of cast structure

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and
the development of cast structure
-Structure and soundness, being dependent upon the
mechanism of solidification, are influenced by many factors,
including the constitution and physical properties of the
alloy. Steels, bronzes, and cast irons, for example, exhibit
wholly different feeding characteristics.
-Other important factors are the pouring and mould
conditions and it is with the manipulation of these
conditions to achieve full control of the pattern of freezing
that much of the technique of founding is concerned.

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and
the development of cast structure
-Crystallization from a metal
melt involves the successive
stages of nucleation and
growth.
-The location and relative
rates of these two
phenomena within the
liquid determine the final
structure of the solid and
establish the extent to which
freezing is directional or Fig. 1.2: Development of
occurs in a discrete manner columnar grain structure
throughout the liquid. (schematic)

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and the development of cast structure
Nucleation
Nucleation is the appearance at points in the liquid of
centres upon which further atoms can be deposited for the
growth of solid crystals. Such nuclei can be produced in two
ways: homogenous and heterogenous nucleation.

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and the development of cast structure
Nucleation
Homogeneous nucleation is the occurrence, during the
general movement within the liquid, of ordered groups of
atoms forming small zones of higher than average density.
These embryonic crystals are ephemeral and unstable, but
some reach a critical size at which they become stable and
grow.

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Solidification 1: Crystallization and the development of cast structure
Nucleation
In heterogeneous nucleation the initial growth interface is
provided by a foreign particle included or formed in the
melt. For a second phase to act as a nucleus in this way it
must be capable of being wetted by the metal, forming a low
contact angle, and must possess some structural affinity with
the crystalline solid.

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 The growth processes which follow
Solidification 1: nucleation determine the final
Crystallization and crystallographic structure of the solid.
the development of
cast structure The mode of growth, both of individual
grains and of the general mass of solid,
Growth depends upon thermal conditions in the
solidification zone and the constitution
of the alloy.

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At a stage depending upon
the number of effective
nuclei and the initial
growth rate, lateral growth
becomes restricted by the
mutual constraint of
neighbouring crystals
An approximately plane
interface then advances by
the progressive deposition
of atoms to join the lattice
of one or other of the
existing crystals
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 Dendritic
growth
• tree-like form
• This is the type of
growth most
commonly
encountered in the
freezing of
commercial casting
alloys forming solid
solutions.
• The primary axis of
the dendrite is the
result of preferred
growth at an edge or
corner of an existing
crystallite.

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Dendritic
growth
The projection
develops into a Classical concept
needle and of a dendrite
subsequently a
plate following the
general direction of
heat flow; this
growth direction is
dendritic
usually associated microstructure in
with a particular carbon–chromium
crystallographic steel
direction

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 Cellular
substructure
 Dendritic growth in
alloys is preceded,
with less marked
undercooling, by the
formation of a highly
distinctive cellular
substructure, direct
evidence for which Cellular substructure formed by undercooling.
was originally (a) Structure in growth direction,
obtained by the (b) hexagonal cells on growth interface (nickel
examination of base alloy,
interfaces from which
the liquid had been This structure is produced as a cluster of hexagonal
decanted rods which grow into the liquid and reject solute to
 as ‘fibrous dendrites’ their boundaries

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The equi-
axed region
Dendrite arms in the
columnar zone
become detached by
local recalescence due
to thermal
fluctuations and
changes in growth
rate. These are carried
by convective stirring
and turbulence into
the central region,
where they grow
independently in Equiaxed grains
undercooled liquid.

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The equi-axed region
Fragmentation is not the only source of such centres for
equi-axed growth.
Contact with the cool mould surface on pouring initiates the
nucleation of many crystallites, which become widely
distributed by pouring turbulence.
In castings poured with little superheat these continue to
grow rapidly to form a wholly equiaxed structure: this has
been termed ‘big-bang’ nucleation.

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The equi-axed region
With higher superheat the initial crystals may remelt
completely or may survive in sufficient numbers to
participate in forming the equi-axed zone. Crystallites can
also become detached and fall through the melt from the
upper metal–mould interface or from the exposed and
chilled free surface of the liquid, a phenomenon long
recognized in ingot solidification.

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The equi-axed region
Three distinct phenomena can contribute to the formation of
the equi-axed region:
1. heterogeneous nucleation in situ,
2. crystal multiplication and
3. transport of crystallites by gravity or by mass movement
of liquid.

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 The
structure of
castings
 Typical duplex
macrostructure in
cast metals
showing columnar
and equiaxed
zones.
 Columnar and
equiaxed dendritic
structures
predominate in
production
castings

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The structure of castings
In the foregoing section the processes of nucleation and
growth have been considered in relation to the principal
alternative features of crystal structure in cast metals. So far
this structure can be seen as an outcome of three major
influences:
Alloy constitution.
Thermal conditions.
Inherent nucleation and growth conditions in the liquid.

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Alloy constitution
Metal composition governs the basic mode of crystallization
and determines whether the structure will consist of single
phase or eutectic grains or both. The alloy composition is
also characterized by particular distribution and diffusion
coefficients for solute in liquid and solid phases and thus
establishes the relative tendency to constitutional
undercooling.

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Thermal
conditions.
The temperature
distribution and rate
of cooling in a
casting are derived
from the initial
temperature
conditions and the
thermal properties
of metal and mould.

a. Planar interface b. Cellular interface

c. Dendritic growth d. Independent nucleation

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 Thermal
conditions.
 With a very high ratio,
columnar growth takes
place with the advance
of a plane interface,
which first gives way to
the cellular growth form
previously described.
 Diminishing values of
G/R bring about the
cell. Dendrite transition,
with columnar growth
now occurring on Influence of temperature gradient G
probes of solid some and freezing rate R on solidification
distance ahead of the morphology of a given alloy
main interface.

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 The basic requirement for
Inherent heterogeneous nucleation lies in the
ability of the liquid metal to wet the
nucleation foreign particle:
and growth - In the case of cast structure of carbon
conditions steels: grain refinement to be effected by
titanium, niobium, and titanium carbide
in the liquid. additions
The relative - In the case of the grain refinement of
possibilities for austenitic steels, nitrogen plays an
nucleation and important role; calcium cyanamide as
growth depend upon well as more familiar inoculants proved
foreign particles or
solutes present in the effective.
liquid, whether as
trace impurities or as
deliberate additions.

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The significance and practical
control of cast structure:
The principal factors governing the final metallographic structure of a
casting may now be listed. They are:
1. Constitution and thermal properties of the alloy;
2. Casting design and dimensions;
3. Thermal properties of the mould;
4. Superheat and final casting temperature;
5. Conditions for heterogeneous nucleation;
6. Conditions affecting motion during solidification;
7. Subsequent heat treatment.

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Grain
shape and
orientation
the columnar structure is
beneficial to pressure
tightness in bronzes and
gunmetals.
Columnar structures
having similarly been
found to give superior
soundness and properties Example of influence of structural alignment on
in steel => a high casting tensile properties of cast material. Super-purity
temperature with rapid
and directional freezing
aluminium (courtesy of Dr P. Thakur)

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The
refinement and
modification of
cast structures
In grey cast iron,
inoculation is regularly
employed to improve the
graphite dispersion by
increasing the nucleation
of eutectic grains, whilst
more radical treatments are
exemplified in the
production of spheroidal
graphite cast iron and in
the modification of
aluminium–silicon alloys,
the object being to
optimize the size and shape
Influence of dendrite cell size on tensile
of the individual phases. properties of a cast alloy (after Spear and
Gardner)
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Cooling rate
The graphite flakes
become progressively
finer with more rapid
cooling, and with
pronounced
undercooling assume
the characteristic finely a
b
divided, curled form
with a ferritic matrix Flake and spheroidal
=> this structure gives graphite forms in cast
inferior mechanical iron. (a) Normal
properties and wear flake, (b) spheroidal.
resistance (c) undercooled flake.

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Cooling rate
The cooling rate in
castings is affected by
variation in the mould
material, the highest
heat diffusivity being
obtained in practice
with the metal moulds
used in gravity die
casting. This influence
of cooling rate is
mainly responsible for The extensive use of chills both to refine the
the superior properties microstructure and to assist feeding by
often associated with steepening the temperature gradients, is an
chill castings, thin important feature of the production of premium
sections and surface castings, with their high and guaranteed levels
zones.
of mechanical properties.

64
Cooling rate
Fine grain size is usually beneficial both to mechanical and
to foundry properties. Since grain boundaries represent a
source of weakness at high temperatures, however, the
converse is the case for high temperature creep resistance.

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Casting process utilizes
The design of pattern/casting • Knowledge of design
The metal flow (fluid flow) in • Knowledge of metal flow
the mould cavity
• Knowledge of heat flow
The heat flow (heat transfer) • Knowledge of the
between metal – mould and
metallurgy
atmosphere
• Shop floor experience
The metallurgy/material science
associated with metals/alloys
and
The shop floor experience to
produce a quality casting as per
specification
66
Types of Components produced in a foundry

67
Brief illustration of stages in casting process

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Brief illustration of stages in casting process

69
Casting Defects
-Pinholes - Rat tails, veins and - Flash, fin and
buckles burrs
-Subsurface blowhole
- Metal penetration - Warping
-Open holes
- Hot tear/crack
-Open shrinkage
- Hot/Hard spots
-Closed shrinkage
- Cold shut/lap
-Cuts and washes
- Misruns
-Fusion
- Cold shots
-Run out
- Slag inclusion
-Swells (scab)
-Drops - Shift/mismatch
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Homework
Please read the post at: https://
www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how
-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
and find out how to prevent those popular defects in
casting.

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2. WEEK: CASTING DESIGN
Be involved with designing patterns, cores and moulds,
gating system and risers.

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