Geothermal Energy

Definition:

Geothermal Energy is energy stored in the form of

heat beneath the
surface of the
solid earth
 Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal Overview
• Extracting Geothermal Energy
• Environmental Implications
• Economic Considerations
• Geothermal Installations – Examples
Geothermal Overview
 Geothermal in Context
Energy Source 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004P
Total a 98.961 96.464 97.952 98.714 100.278
Fossil Fuels 84.965 83.176 84.070 84.889 86.186
Coal 22.580 21.952 21.980 22.713 22.918
Coal Coke Net Imports 0.065 0.029 0.061 0.051 0.138
Natural Gasb 23.916 22.861 23.628 23.069 23.000
Petroleumc 38.404 38.333 38.401 39.047 40.130
Electricity Net Imports 0.115 0.075 0.078 0.022 0.039
Nuclear Electric Power 7.862 8.033 8.143 7.959 8.232
Renewable Energy 6.158 5.328 5.835 6.082 6.117
Conventional Hydroelectric 2.811 2.242 2.689 2.825 2.725
Geothermal Energy 0.317 0.311 0.328 0.339 0.340
Biomassd 2.907 2.640 2.648 2.740 2.845
Solar Energy 0.066 0.065 0.064 0.064 0.063
Wind Energy 0.057 0.070 0.105 0.115 0.143

U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 2000-2004

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html
 Heat from the Earth’s Center
• Earth's core maintains temperatures in excess of 5000°C
– Heat radual radioactive decay of elements
• Heat energy continuously flows from hot core
– Conductive heat flow
– Convective flows of molten mantle beneath the crust.
• Mean heat flux at earth's surface
– 16 kilowatts of heat energy per square kilometer
– Dissipates to the atmosphere and space.
– Tends to be strongest along tectonic plate boundaries
• Volcanic activity transports hot material to near the surface
– Only a small fraction of molten rock actually reaches surface.
– Most is left at depths of 5-20 km beneath the surface,
• Hydrological convection forms high temperature geothermal systems at
shallow depths of 500-3000m.

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
 Earth Temperature Gradient

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html
 Earth Dynamics

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
World pattern of plates, oceanic ridges, oceanic trenches, subduction
zones, and geothermal fields. Arrows show the direction of movement of
the plates towards the subduction zones. (1) Geothermal fields
producing electricity; (2) mid-oceanic ridges crossed by transform faults
(long transversal fractures); (3) subduction zones, where the subducting
plate bends downwards and melts in the asthenosphere.
 Global Geothermal Sites

http://www.deutsches-museum.de/ausstell/dauer/umwelt/img/geothe.jpg
 Tectonic Plate Movements

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Three types of plate boundary

• Divergent

• Convergent

• Transform
 Continent-Continent Collision
• Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas
Presumably,
Pangea was
ripped apart by
such continental
rifting & drifting.
Himalayas
 Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision
• Called SUBDUCTION
Pacific Ring of Fire

Hotspot
volcanoes
 Iceland: An example of continental rifting
• Iceland has a divergent plate
boundary running through its
middle
 Geysers
A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected
turbulently and accompanied by a vapour phase (steam).

Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyser
 Hot Springs
A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally
heated groundwater from the Earth's crust.

Hot springs in Steamboat Springs area.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/geothermal/geothermal.html
 Hot Springs in India

Bakreshwar hot spring (Bengal)

Manikaran, (Himachal Pradesh)

Deulajhari (Odisha)
Gaurikund (Uttarakhand)
Panamik, (Ladakh)
 Fumaroles

Clay Diablo Fumarole (CA) White Island Fumarole

New Zealand
A fumarole (Latin fumus, smoke) is an opening in a planet's crust, often in the
neighborhood of volcanoes, which emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen sulfide. The steam is created when
superheated water turns to steam as its pressure drops when it emerges from the
ground.
http://lvo.wr.usgs.gov/cdf_main.htm http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_white_island_fumerole.html
 Geothermal Site Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

Reasons for the formation of geothermal resources:
Types of geothermal resources:
•Convective hydrothermal resouces
Vapour dominated systems
Water dominated systems
•Sedimentary basins
•Geopressured resouces
•Radiogenic resources
•Hot rock resources
Solidified hot dry rock
Still molten magma.
Vapour dominated systems
Hot water dominated system:
Sedimentary basin resource:
Geopressure geothermal resource:
Radiogenic geothermal resource:
Hot dry rock geothermal resource:
Geothermal sites in India
Power generating capacity of  Indian geothermal provinces

India has 400 medium to high enthalpy geothermal springs, clustered in seven province

The most promising provinces are 

   i)   The Himalaya,
  ii)  Sohana, 
iii)   Cambay,  
iv)  Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA)
v) The Godavari. 

With the recent volcanic eruption, the Barren island, a part of the Andaman-Nicobar chain of islands,
is added to the above list.

Most of them are liquid dominated systems with one or two having both liquid and gas dominated systems.
Extracting Geothermal Energy
 Methods of Heat Extraction

http://www.geothermal.ch/eng/vision.html
 Units of Measure

• Pressure
– 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton / square meter
– 100 kPa = ~ 1 atmosphere
– 1 MPa = ~10 atmospheres
• Temperature
– Celsius (ºC); Fahrenheit (ºF); Kelvin (K)
– 0 ºC = 32 ºF = 273 K
– 100 ºC = 212 ºF = 373 K
 Types of geothermal plants
• Dry steam power plant
• Single flash steam power plant
• Binary cycle plants
• Double flash power plant
• Combined cycle plants
• Hot dry rock technology
 Dry Steam Power Plants
• “Dry” steam extracted from natural reservoir
– 180-225 ºC ( 356-437 ºF)
– 4-8 MPa (580-1160 psi)
– 200+ km/hr (100+ mph)
• Steam is used to drive a turbo-generator
• Steam is condensed and pumped back into the
ground
• Can achieve 1 kWh per 6.5 kg of steam
– A 55 MW plant requires 100 kg/s of steam

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Dry Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Single Flash Steam Power Plants

• Steam with water extracted from ground

• Pressure of mixture drops at surface and more water
“flashes” to steam
• Steam separated from water
• Steam drives a turbine
• Turbine drives an electric generator
• Generate between 5 and 100 MW
• Use 6 to 9 tonnes of steam per hour
 Single Flash Steam Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Binary Cycle Power Plants

• Low temps – 100o and 150oC

• Use heat to vaporize organic liquid
– E.g., iso-butane, iso-pentane
• Use vapor to drive turbine
– Causes vapor to condense
– Recycle continuously
• Typically 7 to 12 % efficient
• 0.1 – 40 MW units common
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Binary Cycle Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Double Flash Power Plants
• Similar to single flash operation
• Unflashed liquid flows to low-pressure tank –
flashes to steam
• Steam drives a second-stage turbine
– Also uses exhaust from first turbine
• Increases output 20-25% for 5% increase in
plant costs
 Double Flash Schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Combined Cycle Plants

• Combination of conventional steam turbine

technology and binary cycle technology
– Steam drives primary turbine
– Remaining heat used to create organic vapor
– Organic vapor drives a second turbine
• Plant sizes ranging between 10 to 100+ MW
• Significantly greater efficiencies
– Higher overall utilization
– Extract more power (heat) from geothermal resource

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
 Hot Dry Rock Technology
• Wells drilled 3-6 km into crust
– Hot crystalline rock formations
• Water pumped into formations
• Water flows through natural fissures picking
up heat
• Hot water/steam returns to surface
• Steam used to generate power

http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/
 Hot Dry Rock Technology

Fenton Hill plant, Australia

http://www.ees4.lanl.gov/hdr/
 Promise of HDR
• 1 km3 of hot rock has the energy content of
70,000 tonnes of coal
– If cooled by 1 ºC
• Upper 10 km of crust in US has 600,000 times
annual US energy
• Between 19-138 MW power available at
existing hydrothermal sites
– Using enhanced technology

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Direct Use Technologies

• Geothermal heat is used directly rather than for

power generation
• Extract heat from low temperature geothermal
resources
– < 150 oC or 300 oF.
• Applications sited near source (<10 km)

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
 Geothermal Heat Pump

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Geothermal District Heating

Southhampton geothermal district heating system technology schematic

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Technology vs. Temperature
Reservoir Reservoir Common Technology
Temperature Fluid Use commonly chosen
High Temperature Water or Power Generation
>220oC Steam   • Flash Steam
(>430oF). Direct Use • Combined (Flash
and Binary) Cycle
• Direct Fluid Use
• Heat Exchangers
• Heat Pumps
Intermediate Water Power Generation
Temperature Direct Use • Binary Cycle
100-220oC • Direct Fluid Use
(212 - 390oF). • Heat Exchangers
• Heat Pumps
Low Temperature Water Direct Use
50-150oC • Direct Fluid Use
(120-300oF). • Heat Exchangers

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
Environmental Implications
 Environmental Impacts
• Land • Water
– Vegetation loss – Watershed impact
– Soil erosion – Damming streams
– Landslides – Hydrothermal eruptions
• Air – Lower water table
– Slight air heating – Subsidence
– Local fogging
• Noise
• Ground
– Reservoir cooling
– Seismicity (tremors) • Benign overall

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
 Renewable ?
• Heat depleted as ground cools
• Not steady-state
– Earth’s core does not replenish heat to crust quickly
enough
• Example:
– Iceland's geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for
over 100 years, compared to the current production of
140 MW

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal
Economics of Geothermal
 Cost Factors
• Temperature and depth of resource
• Type of resource (steam, liquid, mix)
• Available volume of resource
• Chemistry of resource
• Permeability of rock formations
• Size and technology of plant
• Infrastructure (roads, transmission lines)

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/cost_factor.htm
 Costs of Geothermal Energy
• Costs highly variable by site
– Dependent on many cost factors
• High exploration costs
• High initial capital, low operating costs
– Fuel is “free”
• Significant exploration & operating risk
– Adds to overall capital costs
– “Risk premium”

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/
 Geothermal Development

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/assessment.htm
Geothermal Installations

Examples
 Geothermal Power Generation

• World production of 8 MW
– 2.7 MW in US
• The Geyers (US) is world’s largest site
– Produces 2 MW
• Other attractive sites
– Rift region of Kenya, Iceland, Italy, France, New
Zealand, Mexico, Nicaragua, Russia, Phillippines,
Indonesia, Japan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal
 Geothermal Energy Plant

Geothermal energy plant in Iceland

http://www.wateryear2003.org/en/
 Geothermal Well Testing

Geothermal well testing,

Zunil, Guatemala     

http://www.geothermex.com/es_resen.html
 Heber Geothermal Power Station

52kW electrical generating capacity

http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm
 Geysers Geothermal Plant
The Geysers is the largest producer of geothermal power in
the world.

http://www.ece.umr.edu/links/power/geotherm1.htm
Geothermal Summary
 Geothermal Prospects
• Environmentally very attractive
• Attractive energy source in right locations
• Likely to remain an adjunct to other larger
energy sources
– Part of a portfolio of energy technologies
• Exploration risks and up-front capital costs
remain a barrier
 Geothermal Greenhouses

Geothermal greenhouse
in Nigrita, Greece

Cultivation of spirulina
algae using geothermal
heat
 Geothermal application in
the food industry

Geothermal tomato drying The finished

in Northern Greece product
 Geothermal application in
the food industry

Fish factory in Laugar, Iceland

Geothermal fish drying in

Northern Iceland
The finished product
Showing the cost of dehydrated fruits using conventional and
geothermal heat
           
PRODUCT  CAPACITY TIME HEAT COST. HEAT COST  
GEOTHERMAL CONVENTIONAL
  (Kg) (hours) SYSTEM SYSTEM  
           
PINEAPPLE 800 18 900 5000  
APPLE (SLICES) 700 16 800 4500  

APPLE  (CUBES) 900 16 800 4500  

BANANA 800 24 1300 6000  
PLANT Materials 700 30 1500 6500  
           
Courtesy: M/s Eco-Fruit Agro Industry,Gautimala, Central
America (Cost in rupees).  

         
Supplementary Slides

Extras……
 Geothermal Gradient

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm
 Geo/Hydrothermal Systems

http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Geothermal/
 Location of Resources

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Ground Structures

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

 Volcanic Geothermal System

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, 2004

http://www.earthsci.org/mineral/energy/geother/geother.htm
 Single Flash Plant Schematic

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/geothermal/technology.htm
 Binary Cycle Power Plant

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Flash Steam Power Plant

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
 Recent Developments

• Comparing statistical data for end-1996 (SER 1998) and the present Survey, it can be seen that there has been an increase in world
geothermal power plant capacity (+9%) and utilisation (+23%) while direct heat systems show a 56% additional capacity, coupled with a
somewhat lower rate of increase in their use (+32%).

• Geothermal power generation growth is continuing, but at a lower pace than in the previous decade, while direct heat uses show a
strong increase compared to the past.

• Going into some detail, the six countries with the largest electric power capacity are: USA with 2 228 MWe is first, followed by
Philippines (1 863 MWe); four countries (Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Japan) had capacity (at end-1999) in the range of 550-750 MWe each.
These six countries represent 86% of the world capacity and about the same percentage of the world output, amounting to around 45
000 GWhe.

• The strong decline in the USA in recent years, due to overexploitation of the giant Geysers steam field, has been partly compensated by
important additions to capacity in several countries: Indonesia, Philippines, Italy, New Zealand, Iceland, Mexico, Costa Rica, El Salvador.
Newcomers in the electric power sector are Ethiopia (1998), Guatemala (1998) and Austria (2001). In total, 22 nations are generating
geothermal electricity, in amounts sufficient to supply 15 million houses.

• With regard to direct use applications, a large increase in the number of GHP installations for space heating (presently estimated to
exceed 500 000) has put this category in first place in terms of global capacity and third in terms of output. Other geothermal space
heating systems are second in capacity but first in output. Third in capacity (but second in output) are spa uses followed by greenhouse
heating. Other applications include fish farm heating and industrial process heat. The outstanding rise in world direct use capacity since
1996 is due to the more than two-fold increase in North America and a 45% addition in Asia. Europe also has substantial direct uses but
has remained fairly stable: reductions in some countries being compensated by progress in others.

• Concerning R&D, the HDR project at Soultz-sous-Forêts near the French-German border has progressed significantly. Besides the
ongoing Hijiori site in Japan, another HDR test has just started in Switzerland (Otterbach near Basel).

• The total world use of geothermal power is giving a contribution both to energy saving (around 26 million tons of oil per year) and to
CO2 emission reduction (80 million tons/year if compared with equivalent oil-fuelled production).

http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/geo/geo.asp
Government of Gujarat has framed a new policy and pased a government resolution (No
REP-102000-502-B) aimed at formulating an incentive policy for  solar photo voltaic,
geothermal, waste utilization, biomass, etc. Under this Policy 

•project promoters in any of these categories wishing to set up power generating projects to sell power to Gujarat
Electricity Board shall have to enter into a power purchase agreement at Rs. 2.25 per unit (1994-95 as base with
5% escalation in rate every year for a period of 10 years from date of commencement of generation of power)
•Investor shall lay down power evacuating lines to the grid lines of GEB at his own cost
•Metering at site shall be done by Gujarat Energy Development Agency and GEB jointly and GEB shall make
payment within 30 days of receipt of invoice. An "Electricity Credit Note"  shall be issued by GEB to the power
supplier which can be transferred to any HT consumer of GEB who can adjust his electricity bills against the
"credit note". 
•Wheeling charges of 4% of the generated units shall be deducted. 
•Third party sale of power shall be permitted subject to payment of 4% wheeling charges. 
•Banking for a period of 12 months shall be permitted by GEB
•GEDA will function as nodal agency for the purpose of implementation of this scheme. 
•Investors will submit applications to GEB in prescribed form and for grid interface to GEB along with a payment
of Rs. 200000 per MW (to cover incidental expenses)
•Investor shall prepare and submit a detailed project report within 6 months from date of "in principle" approval to
be got approved from E&PCD department of Government of Gujarat..
•Other approvals/NOCshall be required for the project and have to be arranged/obtained by the investor.
•Once these procedures are completed investor shall enter into PPA/wheeling agreement/third party sale, etc. in
consultation with EPD in Government of Gujarat. 
•If investor does not take "effective steps" to implement project within 12 months from date of government
approval of the project, government shall terminate approval without any further notice. "Effective steps" is
interpreted as incurring at least 25% of project cost within 12 months from date of government order allocating
the project. 
Let us see how progressive this policy proves to be……..
Tata Power exploring geothermal energy
sources in India
• As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly
distributed over the globe

Figure showing the

distribution of
earthquakes
around the globe

• At the boundaries between plates, friction causes

them to stick together. When built up energy
causes them to break, earthquakes occur.