Topic 3.

History
Introduction to History
• Since XVIII century, thinkers, researchers, and social scientists have formed what is
known as Social Sciences, these allow studying the man as an individual and as a part of
society.
• All Social Sciences have the same object of study: the human being in society.
• They have been separated to analyze different perspectives of the same object, and can
be linked between them for a better understanding. 
• These sciences include the study of social phenomena, cultural production, and
intellectual material.
• The different Social sciences disciplines have certain distinctive features and very
specific objects of study; therefore analyze various forms of manifestation of society
using a variety of theoretical principles and methods to achieve their goals.
What is History?
• History can be “the narrative and exhibition of past events, as well as
the description of the process of transformation process that
experienced by certain reality to reach the present status” (Cielo,
Castro & Zaragoza, 2012).
• For others, history can be defined as a chronologic record of a
significant event that includes an explanation of its causes, so when
referring to history you refer not only to a narrative or a description of
the facts but also, to the information obtained from questions of the
type of what, how and why, and its implications with what is
happening right now (De la Torre, 2006).
 The conclusions that can be drawn
from the study of historical events
may allow the approach to history
from scientific basis.
Scientific
Perspective By using a specifically scientific
perspective it is possible to see
history as a dynamic process, rather
than regard it as a specific event
that can affect the entire system.
Herodoto (484-426 B. C.)

• From Greek origins, he is considered as the father of history, however, he only narrated the actions,
events, details and situations of lands as Egypt and Persia.
• This is a limited point of view, is like a photo of time.
• The traditional historian does not base on theories or offer a perspective on the events that he
relates.
•  In this sense, history is used as an event history.
Herodoto
Perspective 
 • In the second half of the XIX
century, Leopold von Ranke
suggested to analyze and interpret
historical data objectively, leaving
Leopold von apart from the author’s subjectivity
Ranke by which is considered the father
of modern analytical history, which
is handled as historiography.
Leopold Von
Ranke
 • Another view is presented by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels in which they propose that
Karl Marx the class struggle is what really moves
history, this leads us to see that the work of
and Friedrich history is complex, as it is not only a
Engels narrative of past events, but the
interpretation of these facts in the light of
the moment.
There are three main methods for studying history:
 • The recognition of a problem or identifying a
particular need for historical knowledge.
• The collection of all relevant information
regarding the problem or issue.
In synthesis • The formulation of hypothesis that tentatively
explain the relationship between historical
the historian factors.
follows these • The rigorous compilations, evidence
organization, and verifying the authenticity and
steps: accuracy of the information and its sources.
• Selection, organization and analysis of relevant
evidence collection, drawing conclusions and
record of the same.
Topic 4.
Economics
and Political
Science
 • Economy is related to the social interactions
that occur since goods are produced until
they are consumed, that is to say, where the
raw material is removed, how it changes in
different products, how are products
distributed and sold.
Introduction
to Economy The word economy has its origins in the
Greek language oikonomia, which means the
direction or organization of a house;
economists study the reason why a company
decides to produce goods and exchange
them for money and how people interact
and cooperate to this end.
 Physiocracy.
• Represented by Francois Quesnay and Jacques
Economic Turgot, was the theory that made the first attempt
theory to systematize the economy; among its main ideas
we find that the source of wealth is the land, that is
developed in to say, that a nation is richer as more land and
mid XVIII agricultural production has.
century, the •  This theory stated that societies are governed by
natural laws; therefore the fate of economy
main methods depends on nature and not the State.
or schools that •  From this theory arises the famous phrase laissez-
faire, laissez-passer which means “let go, let pass”.
emerged are: • Therefore, the State should not intervene in
economic decisions.
Physiocracy
 •  Main representatives are: Adam Smith,
David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill. 
• This theory proposes that the State should
not intervene in the way markets work and
suggests that the pursuit of economic gain
Classic drives companies to produce more.
economy • The economy must be flexible so that
markets are balanced on supply and
demand.
• This theory speaks of perfect competition in
all markets.
Classic
Economy
 •  Its representatives are Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels.
• This theory considers work as a source of
wealth, is a critique to capitalism and the
Scientific bourgeoisie.
Socialism • The owners exploit the worker in means of
production.
• This theory proposes the disappearance of
social classes and the absence of capital
accumulation.
Scientific
Socialism
 • Its main representative is Alfred Marshall.
• This theory developed concepts such as offer
and demand, price elasticity and the
Neoclassical functioning of the market.
• It also proposed the factors of production
land, labor and capital; it added the
industrial organization element.
Neoclassical
 • Economic is the optimal utilization of natural
and human resources to achieve a society
The object that meets mankind needs, such as food,
clothing, shelter, health, education,
of study recreation, facilities, among others.
Natural and
Human
Resources
The following are the most important fields in
the economics study:

• The art of organizing and managing the income and expenses of a company
(Business economics).

• Managing all the resources available to the state; activities of the citizens of a
state. (National economy).

• When the state intervenes in all economic aspects (Economic

interventionism).
The utilized methods are the following:
Political Science
 • The word politics comes from the
Greek politike which means “relating to citizens,
state and its composition as a community”.
• Plato and Aristotle analyzed the political life city-
state in ancient Greece, political science is in charge
of studying the way the state or government carries
Political the affairs of a society.
• It relates very directly to the branch that holds
science power, or the way it holds the power.
• This science seeks to identify, analyze, explain and
criticize the political processes taking place in a
society, considering the kind of government, how it
was formed and how individuals attain positions of
power within a particular government.
 • Understood as the power conceded to an
individual or group to exercise strong
population control over a territory,
ultimately by force (De la Torre, 2006).
Politics can be understood in three basic ways:
Politics  1. Struggle for the power.
2. Institutions through which power is
exercised.
3. Reflection on its origin, structure and basis.
Politics
Among some of the main exponents of political science we can find:
 • political science is the power relation that is
exercised in a society to maintain or change
the direction of the State. 
• In other words, politics study the
relationship between the rulers and ruled.
The object • Research methods are empirical and collect
of study both quantitative and qualitative data to find
patterns and then make generalizations to
build theories. 
• Political science develops according to the
following steps:
Steps to Political Science
 Topic 5.
Sociology and
Social
Anthropology
 Sociology
The social
sciences are in History
charge of the
study of man in
society. For their
Economy
study, social
sciences are Political sciences
divided into
various branches: Anthropology
Sociology
• Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of the human being in society.
• Sociology is the social studies of reality in all its shapes and forms: phenomena,
relationships, structures, systems, attitudes and social behaviors (De la Torre,
2006).
• The word sociology comes from the Latin Societas that means “society”
and logos that means “study”.
• Some of the leading exponents of sociology are Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer,
Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Karl Marx and Pierre Bourdieu.
• It is important to mention that Auguste Comte is considered the pioneer of social
studies.
Object of Study 
• The object of study of sociology is society.
• It analyzes what happens in groups, associations or institutions in a
particular time and place.
• Sociology can also be seen as the cause and effect of social relations
between individuals and between these and social groups, as well as
customs and institutions that emerge from these relationships and
the effect of these groups and organizations (De la Torre, 2006). 
• Some concepts used in sociology are: social class, social group, role,
association and community.
The methods used in sociology are the following:
 The word anthropology comes from the Greek anthropos that
means “man” and logos that means “study”. It is the science
that studies human behavior in the social character; it studies
individual cultures in a society.
Anthropologists make special emphasis on language, kinship
patterns, and cultural artifacts. 
Anthropolog
y Additionally it studies the evolution of humanity along with
their cultural manifestations.

Some recognized anthropologists are: Thomas Bendyshe,

Gustav Klemm, Lewis Henry Morgan, Edward Taylor, Bronislaw
Malinowski and Claude Lévi-Strauss.
 The object of study of anthropology
is the human being in society as a
creator of culture.

Object of
Study  Some of the concepts used in
anthropology are: artifacts, tools,
political and social organization,
religion, genetics, multiculturalism,
and technics of work division.
Anthropologists
have divided
anthropology
into two
branches:
Methods
• The methods used by anthropology are mainly focused in the field of work. 
• It uses direct observation, surveys, newspapers, maps, photographs and recordings.
The main methods are:
• Historic-logical: was developed in the XX century, its premise was to use archaeological
data to construct timelines of important events and cultural changes in the past.
• Social and cultural research: the human being is seen within a community or social
system. The anthropologist is part of the life of the community and conducts routine
observations every day.
• Comparative: seeks to discover processes that lead to the development of certain
customs.
 Topic
6. Epistemology in
Social Sciences
Introduction:
• Epistemology attempts to determine the nature of human knowledge, its types,
and claims to know the appropriate methods to route man into that knowledge.
• Today, it is difficult to distinguish epistemology from other methods of each
science.
• Many of the decisions made by professionals from different areas are related to
research processes; a marketing manager must research to determine what
consumers want, a presidential candidate needs to carry out opinion surveys to
know what voters say, it is also used by television producers who need to find out
what TV programs are more popular.
• The following topics will answer such questions.
 The word epistemology comes from
the Greek word episteme that means
knowledge and logos that means study
or theory, therefore epistemology is
the theory of knowledge.
Explanatio
n: It analyzes philosophical foundations,
structures, and how knowledge is
created, the way that investigates,
explains, and interprets their results.
 According to Briones (2002), through the
different moments in the construction of
knowledge in social sciences there have
emerged five main problems, which research
needs to resolve before doing more research:
Construction 1. The ontological (study of existence)
assumptions (of being and their qualities)
of and epistemological (knowledge) of social
Knowledge: sciences. This section deals with the
conception of nature of things and the
possibility of knowing them, for example
the soul, because it doesn’t have the
qualities to be studied.
 2. The object of study of social sciences, the
individual or society as whole.
At the macro social level (big social groups) or
Problems of micro social (small groups).
To understand this problem you can analyze
Social the study conducted by Durkheim about
suicide as an individual act and the impact on
Science society, therefore the researcher must
determine how to analyze an event from the
individual or from its impact on society.
 3. The nature of science knowledge,
according to a quantitative
approach, measures the social
Problems of variable or qualitative with holistic
approach, in other words, studying
Social the subject in its entirety.
Sciences
 4. The relationship between the object under
investigation and the values of the
Problems of investigator.
At this point, you start questioning the
Social objectivity of the investigation or whether the
Sciences results are influenced by the beliefs, values,
and prejudice of the researcher.
 5. The final function must meet scientific
research standards according to the chosen
model for the construction of the social
Problems of science. 
• On one hand, some scholars believe that
Social social sciences should explain the
Sciences phenomena they study and on the other
hand, are those who think they should
interpret the phenomena.
Social Theories
• There are many alternative views and theories that have contributed
to the construction of social sciences due to the philosophical
perspective in which they are based.
• We briefly analyze some major schools that present how knowledge
is acquired. 
• Some of these theories were pretreated yet addressed from the point
of view of social sciences; in this section we concentrate in how
knowledge is acquired.
Materialism
• The current claim that everything is matter and that the only reality that exists is
material reality.
• The origins of this theory date back around 300 years B.C. with Democritus and
Epicurus, who said that everything is made of atoms.
•  Currently, materialism is represented by the dialectical materialism of Marx and
Engels, who believed that nature is the matter that has existence independently
of being thought.
•  Physicalism, like positivism, considers that a sentence becomes meaningful only
if it can be verified.
•  To prove this theory, you can use the law of gravity, which existed before Isaac
Newton named, discovered, and explored it.
Rationalism 
•  The current that states that reality can be known without any prior
experience.
•  One of the main speakers was Descartes, with his famous phrase “I
think therefore I am” describes the basic concept of this theory.
• Early in the century, Emile Durkheim developed a research paper The
Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, without traveling to these
study places, supporting his work on reports and experiences of
people who had visited them.
 Empiricism
• Asserts that experience is necessary to know something.
• Its main exhibitors are Locke, Hume and Mill. 
• Most of the social science research has bases in the main
assumptions of empiricism.
• This theory bases knowledge in the learned information only through
experimentation, for example, anthropology is a science to develop
any research, the researcher must go, know, and live in the
community of study.
 Realism
• Exposes that ideas exist whether or not they are thought.
•  Knowledge is possible without the necessity of thought.
•  Some of its main representatives are Mario Bunge, Bertrand Russell
and G. E. Moore.
• This theory is opposed to idealism.
 Idealism 

Assumes that objects cannot To know things consciousness, Plato, Berkeley and Kant are
exist without a mind that is ideas, the subject and thought, some of their representatives.
aware of them. must be taken into account. 
 • Asserts that all knowledge must be
based on sensory experience.
• To acquire knowledge one should
base on observation and
 Positivism experimentation, in other words, it
relies on the scientific method.
•  Bacon and Comte are the main
exponents of this philosophical
current.
 • Emerged in the late 1920s in what is known
as the Vienna Circle.
Logical
• Its thought is born of empiricism and is
positivism  known as total empiricism based on logic to
avoid ambiguity.
 •  Is a doctrine developed by Edmund Husserl. 
• It proposes that consciousness involves a
relationship with the object and keeps the
Phenomenolog essence of the phenomenon.
y • It proposes a method called
phenomenological reduction in which the
individual is placed in the field of pure
consciousness to find the foundations of
science.
 •  Of language of Wittgenstein says
that everything that can be
thought can be expressed by
language and the most important
Analytic function of language is to describe
philosophy  facts.
 •  Has as the object of investigation
the historical as the knowledge
that can be accomplished is
historically mediated.
 Hermeneutics 
Topic 7. Social
Research
Methodologie
s
Introduction:
• The research has been carried out in various fields of social sciences such as
economics, sociology, anthropology, and other disciplines which have made
possible to construct theories, design better methods and techniques
for studying social problems.
• It is important to study scientific criteria to reach valid conclusions when making
decisions.
• Some examples of social issues are: investments in housing construction for
population that does not need it, providing medical assistance programs with
models that do not correspond to social or contextual framework.
• Social research involves the study of problems like: poverty, violence, economic
crisis, immigration, environment, among others.
Explanation:
• To begin the topic, you must know the meaning of research, according to
Hernandez, Fernandez and Baptista (2010): “research is defined as a set of
systematic, empirical processes that apply to study of a phenomenon.”

The goals of social science research can be divided into two groups:

1. Those who seek to know and/or produce new knowledge related to

social phenomena.
2. Those who want to answer questions that arise from a concrete reality.
Research:
• The research is to be conducted in social fields closely related to theoretical approach
chosen for developing the same and for interpretation of results.
• The approach will determine the kind of questions allowed as well as the variables to be
tested.
• The natural sciences present different problematic.
• It is important to consider that the studies focus on individuals or social groups, whose
behavior may be affected by multiple factors; the investigator’s subjectivity is also
considered a determining element that affects the results. 
 Research
methods can be
classified
according to the
following chart.
 The quantitative method is carried out to test a hypothesis
looking through the data collection and statistical analysis. 

The process for conducting this research is sequential and

rigorous, consisting of ten stages that begin with an idea and
end with the preparation of the progress report based from
Quantitativ the results.

e Method  In this research, we seek to explain and predict the

phenomena investigated in order to prove a theory, while
identifying universal laws and new knowledge is generated. 

In a quantitative approach, research is intended to be as

objective and structured as possible avoiding the subjectivity
of the researcher. This approach is based on positivist
philosophies.
Qualitative Method
• The qualitative method does not use numerical measurement to answer the research
questions.
• This approach is a circular flexible process in which the sequences of the processes
change according to the same investigation and frequently back to previous stages,
which can be modified according to the requirements of the study.
• This research seeks to describe, understand and interpret phenomena.
• It is an inductive process. Usually, this approach is used more in social sciences, since it is
based in phenomenology and naturalism.
Mixed • The mixed method involves linking
Method qualitative and quantitative methods in a
single study to answer a specific problem.
Differences between the qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Inductive vs. Deductive reasoning
Exploratory Design
• An exploratory design seeks to examine an issue or a problem that has not been studied
profoundly.
•  The researcher tries to find indicators that may serve to define the studied phenomenon.
• Information is obtained to further investigate the phenomenon and to investigate it in a particular
context.
• Out of this type of investigation, you cannot obtain definitive conclusions or generalizations.
• The descriptive designs highlight the most important characteristics of the object of study that is
a person, group, community, or phenomenon under analysis.
• These studies also provide information that will serve as a basis for further research. You cannot
draw general conclusions, only descriptions of a phenomenon.
 Correlational designs seek
the relationship or degree of
association between two or
Correlationa more variables or concepts.
l Designs  Its value is explanatory,
because it explains the
relationship between two
variables.
 • Respond to the causes of phenomena or
Explanatory events and focuses on demonstrating why an
designs  event occurs and the conditions under which
it shows. 
 •  Seek to generate a theorem that explains, at
a conceptual level, an action in a specific
area.
•  The ethnographic design studies groups,
Grounded organizations, communities or cultural
designs  elements such as education, politics, and
history.
• This kind of research involves description
and interpretation, and it is carried out in a
given context.
 • In a narrative design, the researchers collect
information about people’s lives and then
Narrative describe and analyze it.
design • The sources of data can be biographies,
interviews, documents, etc.
 The action research
designs seek to solve everyday
problems immediately and
Action improve the action.
Research
Its objective is to help make
Designs decisions for the
implementation of programs,
processes, and reforms.
 All research methods, quantitative, qualitative or mixed, are initiated by
brainstorming, whether to solve problems, to contribute new ideas or
generate questions. Generally, at the beginning of the process, the
ideas are vague, but they are gradually translated into specific problems.
Here are some sources to generate ideas for an investigation:

Topic • Individual experiences

• Books, articles, newspapers
8. Process of • Television

Social • Information available on internet

• Thesis
Research • Theories
• Observations
• Personal conversations
• Beliefs
• Others ideas
Quantitative Investigation (steps)
Explanation of steps

The problem statement should express a relationship between two or more

concepts and should be formulated as a question. By posing the problem,
the research objectives must define its justification and benefits.

The literature review implies that the researcher considers the studies that

have been previously done, different information sources are revised and a
theoretical framework is built to guide the investigation.
Explanation of steps

The view of the scope of the study is determined by the kind of study to be performed, exploratory,
descriptive, correlational or explicative.

Depending on the scope of the investigation, a tentative hypothesis is formulated for the
explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. Exploratory studies do not
formulate hypothesis.

Subsequently, the research design is decided, which can be experimental if there is a manipulation

of variables, in other words, if  causes are modified to determine how the consequences are
affected, or if the design is not-experimental and the observation consists of only focusing in the
phenomenon in its natural environment.
Explanation of steps
• The sample selection refers to the establishment of a group that is representative of a
population so they can discuss the data. Afterwards, a collection of data that can be
carried out through questionnaires, surveys, observation or standardized test. To analyze
the data, it is necessary to use statistical methods.
Conclusion 
• Finally, the progress report is showcased to explain how the results
relate to the hypothesis and if they fit the existing theory.
• The qualitative approach has a different process than the quantitative
as in the qualitative the statements are more flexible, open and not
very specific.
• It is often necessary to go back to previous stages so there isn’t a
series of rigorous steps to follow,  in the qualitative approach, the
documentation review can be complemented at any stage of the
investigation and may be reviewed at any phase of the process.
Qualitative
Approach
Topic 9. Field of Research
• The field of study of contemporary social phenomena is based on different concepts,
such as society, class, social group, social processes and practices to explain the events
that occur in a community.
•  In this topic you will analyze the process and the social composition as a group to be
studied. 
Explanation:
• One aspect that describes characteristics of man is his tendency to live in society.
According to Anda (2004), society in the modern era can be defined as:
• The durable and dynamic union between individuals, families and groups by means of
communication within the same culture, to achieve the purposes of a collective life
through the division of labor and roles, according to the regulation of all activities
through rules of conduct imposed under the control of an authority (p. 32).
 On the other hand, Perez (2011) defines
society as a group of people who share a
common habitat and depend on each other
for their survival and well-being (p. 10).
Marx felt that society was the interaction
Explanation between men, although they are not free to
choose the kind of society in which they
: live.
Human beings live in collectivity for
subsistence as the following:
Subsistence:
Society:
• Society, is organized into institutions like family, church, state, school,
and share certain cultural characteristics.
•  Every society has elements that define them such as language,
culture, beliefs and territory, a society is not a homogeneous entity in
which all are equal, but it is formed of various differences and points
of view among its members.
 The class concept, from the
standpoint of sociology, can be
viewed from different angles.

Class: It is criteria used to differentiate

individuals in a society and not only
refers to property, but also to the
social, cultural or political aspects.
Social Class:
Social Class
Groups:

• Social groups are an integral part of society and represent diversity of thought, organization or
participation in society.
• They give identity and sense of belonging to the group, have a certain degree of organization and
seek common goals whether economic, political, cultural, religious, and sportive.
• Examples: a social club, the Chamber of industry and Transformation, U.S.
There are different types of social groups:
Social Practices:
• Social practices are events that construct social reality, but have different meanings
depending on the context in which they take place. These social practices are those that
define society and are constantly changing. Examples: marriage, parenting, funerals,
graduations.
• It is important to address that there are different types of social practices:
• Language is one of the identity features of the cultures or a human group that allows
them to distinguish from others identify themselves and communicate.
• Religion is a belief system that guides the human being practices; it also establishes the
morals for our daily actions.

• Culture is formed by a series of behavior traits that are expressed in function of the
values, beliefs, habits, customs and rules that define a life style.
 • All social phenomena can be investigated, in
certain zones.
Topic • The investigation consists of a series of
10. Developmen specific steps, it is necessary to focus the
research, so the results can be used to solve
t Zones problems or generate accurate study to
formulate proposals to find solutions.
•  The topic will help you analyze specific
research problems.
 • In this section, we will discuss some
elements that can help you develop research
projects on social problems (Anda, 2004).
Explanation •  First, we present four major areas of social
: science institutions, and finally some specific
research problems.
• To analyze these areas we present the
following table:
Social Problems:
Institutions:

• Institutions are also development areas in which investigation can take place; mechanisms or
structures that influence the behavior of individuals in a community, have a social purpose and are
considered an essential part of a society. 
• They feature a vertical and hierarchical structure, in other words, they have a maximum authority on
which maximum authorities depend.
• There are two types of institutions, public, created by the state and private, created by individuals.
•  Both institution types have the accountability to users, some of them are:
Institutions:
Economic Institution:
Social Institution:
Health Institution:
Educational Institution:
Cultural Institution: