Chapter 2:

Ethics in Psychological
Research
Ethics in Psy. Research
► Each individual scientist has an ethical responsibility to seek
knowledge and to strive to improve the quality of life. Diener
and Crandall (1978) identify several specific responsibilities
that follow from this general mandate. Scientists should
► — carry out research in a competent manner;
► —report results accurately;
► —manage research resources honestly;
► — fairly acknowledge, in scientific communications, the
individuals who have contributed their ideas or their time and
effort;
► —consider the consequences to society of any research
endeavor;
► — speak out publicly on societal concerns related to a
scientist’s knowledge and expertise.
► The five general values or principles for ethical
conduct are
● Beneficence and Non-Malfeasance
● Fidelity and Responsibility
● Integrity
● Justice
● Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
► Prior to conducting any study, the proposed research
must be reviewed to determine if it meets ethical
standards.

● Institutional Review Board (IRB):

 Human Subjects Research Committee (HSRC)
– At least 5 members with varying backgrounds and
expertise.
– Scientists and nonscientists, at least 1 person not
affiliated with the institution.
– Reviews proposals to protect rights and welfare
of human participants.
 Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
(IACUC)
– Reviews research to make sure animals are
treated humanely.
– In addition to reviewing research procedures,
these committees review the animals’ living
quarters and the training procedures for those
who work with animals.
– Include at least one scientist, one veterinarian,
and one person not affiliated with the
institution.
 Risk/Benefit Ratio
► A subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of a
research project to:
● participants
● society
● the researcher and institution
► Then determine whether the research should be
conducted.
► For instance, a research project investigating a new
treatment for psychotic behavior may entail risk for the
participants. If the proposed treatment has a good
chance of having a beneficial effect, however, then the
possible benefits to both the individuals and society
could outweigh the risk involved in the study.
► Also consider whether valid and interpretable results
will be produced
► Otherwise participants’ time, attention, and effort and
the money, space, supplies, and other resources that
have been expended on the research project will be
ruined
► Potential risks in psychological research include risk of
physical injury, social injury, and mental or emotional
stress.
► Risks must be evaluated in terms of potential
participants’ everyday activities, their physical and
mental health, and capabilities.
► In many psychology studies, emotional or mental stress
may be great — including stress that might arise from
participants’ misconceptions about the task.
Milgram obedience study (Milgram, 1963)
subjects instructed to use electric shock to
punish other individuals when they made
errors in a learning task
participants were administering what
appeared to be dangerously strong and painful
shocks
no real shocks were used in the study
although the participants in this study
sustained no physical harm, they suffered
shame and embarrassment for having behaved
inhumanely toward their fellow human beings
► A distinction must be made between a participant “at risk”
and one who is “at minimal risk.”
► Minimal risk means that the harm or discomfort
participants may experience in the research is not greater
than what they might experience in their daily lives or
during routine physical or psychological tests (consider
age health & circumstances).
► If risks are considered more than minimal, individuals
are considered to be “at risk.”
► Whether “at risk” or “at minimal risk,” research
participants must be protected. More safeguards are
needed as risks become greater.
► To protect participants from social risks, information they
provide should be anonymous, or if that is not possible, the
confidentiality of their information should be maintained.
 INFORMED CONSENT
► Researchers and participants enter into a social
contract, often using an informed consent procedure.
● Researchers are ethically obligated to describe the
research procedures clearly, identify any aspects of
the study that might influence individuals’
willingness to participate, and answer any questions
participants have about the research.
● Research participants must be allowed to withdraw
their consent at any time without penalties.
● Individuals must not be pressured to participate in
research.
● Research participants are ethically obligated to
behave appropriately during the research by not
lying, cheating, or engaging in other fraudulent
behavior.
● Informed consent must be obtained from legal
guardians for individuals unable to provide consent
(e.g., young children, mentally impaired individuals);
assent to participate should be obtained from
individuals unable to provide informed consent.

● Researchers should consult with knowledgeable

others, including an IRB, when deciding whether to
dispense with informed consent, such as when
research is conducted in public settings. These
settings require special attention to protecting
individuals’ privacy.

● Privacy refers to the rights of individuals to decide

how information about them is to be communicated
to others.
Confidentiality & Anonymity

► Confidentiality is the practice of keeping strictly

secret and private the information or measurements
obtained from an individual during a research study.

► Anonymity is the practice of ensuring that an

individual’s name is not directly associated with the
information or measurements obtained from that
individual.
 Dispensing With Consent

In some situations researchers are not required

to obtain informed consent.

The clearest example is when researchers are

observing individuals’ behavior in public
places without any intervention. “Naturalistic
Observation”
 Three major dimensions should be
considered when trying to decide
whether people’s behavior is public or
private:
● 1. the sensitivity of the information
 more sensitive information is typically regarded as
more private (e.g., sexual practices, religious beliefs)

● 2. the setting of the information

 in public settings, people give up a certain degree of
privacy (e.g., sporting events, concerts)
● 3. Method of dissemination of the
information
 sensitive information should be reported in ways so
that specific individuals cannot be identified (e.g.,
group averages)
 DECEPTION IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

► Deception in psychological research occurs when:

● researchers withhold information
● or intentionally misinform participants about the research.
► By its nature, deception violates the ethical principle of
informed consent.
► Deception is considered a necessary research strategy in
some psychological research.
► Deceiving individuals in order to get them to participate
in the research is always unethical.
► Researchers must carefully weigh the costs of deception
against the potential benefits of the research when
considering the use of deception.
 Debriefing
► Researchers are ethically obligated to seek ways to benefit
participants even after the research is completed. One of the best ways
to accomplish this goal is by providing participants with a thorough
debriefing.

► Debriefing benefits both participants and researchers.

► Researchers are ethically obligated to explain to participants their use

of deception as soon as is feasible.

► Debriefing informs participants about the nature of the research and

their role in the study and educates them about the research process.
The overriding goal of debriefing is to have individuals feel good
about their participation.

► Debriefing allows researchers to learn how participants viewed the

procedures, allows potential insights into the nature of the research
findings, and provides ideas for future research.
Research with animals

►Animals are used in research to gain

knowledge that will benefit humans, for
example, by helping to cure diseases.

►Researchers are ethically obligated to

acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals
in compliance with current federal, state, and
local laws and regulations, and with
professional standards.
REPORTING OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

► Investigators attempt to communicate their

research findings in peer-reviewed scientific
journals, and the APA Code of Ethics provides
guidelines for this process.

► Decisions about who should receive publication

credit are based on the scholarly importance of
the contribution.

► Ethical reporting of research requires recognizing

the work of others by using proper citations and
references; failure to do so may result in
plagiarism.
Replication

Replication
is repetition of a research study using the
same basic procedures used in the original.
Either the replication supports the original
study by duplicating the original results, or it
casts doubt on the original study by
demonstrating that the original result is not
easily repeated.
Plagiarism
► Plagiarism is the representation of someone else’s ideas
or words as one’s own, and it is unethical.
► Guideline to prevent from plagiarism:

1. Take complete notes, including complete citation of

the source. (For articles, include author’s name, year
of publication, title of the article, journal name,
volume number, and page numbers. For books, also
include the publisher’s name and city.)
2. Within your paper, identify the source of any ideas,
words, or information that are not your own.
3. Identify any direct quotes by quotation marks at
the beginning and end of the quotes, and indicate
where you got them.
4. Be careful about paraphrasing (restating someone
else’s words). It is greatly tempting to lift whole
phrases or catchy words from another source. Use
your own words instead, or use direct quotes. Be
sure to give credit to your sources.
5. Include a complete list of references at the end of
the paper. References should include all the
information listed in Item 1.
6. If in doubt about whether a citation is necessary,
cite the source. You will do no harm by being
especially cautious.