Electrical Measurement and

Instrumentation
Lecture 9
Sensor Technologies

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering

 Transducers

 Transducer
A device which converts one form of energy to another
 Sensor
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical
 Actuator
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity

Sensors Physical Electrical Actuators

parameter Input

Electrical Physical
Output Output

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 Sensors over Human
Beings

Human beings are equipped with 5 different types of sensors.

Eyes detect light energy, ears detect acoustic energy.
Tongue detects certain chemicals related with
tasting Nose detect certain chemicals related with
smelling Skin detects pressures and temperatures.
The eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and skin receive these
signals then send
messages to the brain which outputs a response.
For example, when you touch a hot plate, it is your brain that tells you it
is hot, not your skin.

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 Conversion
Methods
• Physical Properties
– thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-
optic
– photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
– electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
– magneto-electric
• Chemical Properties
– chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical
• Biological Properties
– biological transformation, physical transformation

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 Why do we use
Sensors
 Sensors are used widely in system control..
 Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation!
 They are embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes,
cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial
plants and countless other applications.
 Signals obtained from sensors will used to control the
system

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 Measured
Quantities
Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)
Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,
polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity
Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,
Permeability
Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption
Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity
Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,
Pressure, Torque

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 Physical
 Amperes’s Law Principles
– A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a
force (e.g. galvanometer)
 Curie-Weiss Law
– There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic
materials exhibit paramagnetic behavior
 Faraday’s Law of Induction
– A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer)
 Photoconductive Effect
– When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the
resistance of
the material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)

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 How to Choose A
Sensor

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 Classification of
Sensors
Where is the information coming from?
Inside: Proprioceptive sensors
motor speed, wheel load, heading of the robot, battery status
Outside: Exteroceptive sensors
distances to objects, intensity of the ambient light, unique
features

How does it work? Requires energy emission?

No: Passive sensors
temperature probes, microphones, CCD
Yes: Active sensors
Controlled interaction -> better performance Interference

Simple vs. composite

(sonar vs. wheel sensor)

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 Motion
 Monitor location of various parts in a system Sensors
– absolute/relative position
– angular/relative displacement
– proximity
– acceleration
 Principle of operation
–Magnetic, resistive, capacitance, inductive, eddy curre nt,
Primary Secondary etc.

Potentiometer

LVDT Displacement Sensor Optoisolator

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 Strain Gauge: Motion, Stress,
Pressure

Strain gauge is used to measure

deflection, stress, pressure, etc.
The resistance of the sensing
element
changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to
measure small changes in the
strain gauge resistance

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 Temperature Sensor: Bimetallic
Strip
 Bimetallic Strip

L  L0[1  (T - Metal A
T0)]
δ
 Application
– Thermostat (makes or Metal B
breaks electrical
connection with
deflection)

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 Temperature Sensor:
RTD

 Resistance temperature
device (RTD)
R  R0[1  (T -
T0)]
1 1 
  T
R  R0e 
T 0

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 Other Temperature
 Thermistor Sensors
Thermocouple:
Therm Seeback effect to transform a
istor
Thermal Resistor temperature difference to a
voltage difference


 E
R  exp g 
2kT

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 Capacitive
• Capacitance of a parallel plate
Transducers
capacitor :

C
 r 0 A
d
– A: overlapping area of plates (m2)
– d: distance between the two plates of the
capacitor (m)
– 0 : permittivity of air or free space 8.85 pF/m Air escape hole

– r : dielectric constant
The following variations can be utilized to
air
make capacitance-based sensors.
• Change distance between the parallel electrodes.
• Change the overlapping area of the parallel
electrodes. Parallel plate Fuel tank
• Change the dielectric constant. capacitor

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 Accelerometer–
I
 Accelerometers are used to
measure acceleration
along one or more axis
and are relatively
insensitive to orthogonal
directions
 Applications
– Motion, vibration, blast, impact,
shock wave m Position Sensor

k b

Vibrating B ase

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 Accelerometer–
II
 Electromechanical device to measure acceleration forces
– Static forces like gravity pulling at an object lying at a table
– Dynamic forces caused by motion or vibration
 How they work
– Seismic mass accelerometer: a seismic mass is connected to the object
undergoing acceleration through a spring and a damper;
– Piezoelectric accelerometers: a microscopic crystal structure is mounted
on a mass undergoing acceleration; the piezo crystal is stressed by
acceleration forces thus producing a voltage

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 Accelerometer–
– Capacitive accelerometer: consists of III
two microstructures
(micromachined features) forming a capacitor; acceleration forces
move one of the structure causing a capacitance changes.
– Piezoresistive accelerometer: consists of a beam or micromachined
feature whose resistance changes with acceleration
– Thermal accelerometer: tracks location of a heated mass during
acceleration by temperature sensing

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 Accelerometer
 Automotive: monitor vehicle Applications
tilt, roll, Helmet: Impact
Detection
impact, vibration, etc., to deploy
skid,
devices (stability control, anti-lock breaking
safety
system, airbags, etc.) and to
ensure
comfortable ride (active suspension)
 Aerospace: inertial navigation,
smart munitions, unmanned
vehicles
 Sports/Gaming: monitor athlete Segway
performance and injury, joystick, tilt
 Personal electronics: cell phones,
digital devices
 Security: motion and vibration detection
 Industrial: machinery health monitoring 2 axis joystick

 Robotics: self-balancing

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 Gyroscop
e frame
Heading sensors, that keep the orientation to a fixed
absolute measure for the heading of a mobile system.
Two categories,
Mechanical Gyroscopes
Standard gyro
Rated gyro
Optical Gyroscopes
Rated gyro

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 Mechanical
 Concept: Gyroscopes
inertial properties of a fast spinning rotor
– gyroscopic precession
 Angular momentum associated with a spinning wheel keeps the axis of
the gyroscope inertially stable.
 Reactive torque t (tracking stability) is proportional to the spinning speed
w,
the precession speed W and the wheels inertia I.
 No torque can be transmitted from the outer pivot to the wheel axis
– spinning axis will therefore be space-stable
 Quality: 0.1° in 6 hours   I 
 If the spinning axis is aligned with the
north-south meridian, the earth’s rotation
has no effect on the gyro’s horizontal axis
 If it points east-west, the horizontal axis
reads the earth rotation

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 Global Positioning System (GPS) -
I
• Developed for military use
• Recently it became accessible for commercial applications
• 24 satellites (including three spares) orbiting the earth every 12 hours at
a height of 20.190 km.
• Four satellites are located in each of six planes inclined 55 degrees
with respect to the plane of the earth’s equators
• Location of any GPS receiver is determined through a time of flight
measurement

Technical challenges:
• Time synchronization between the individual satellites and the GPS
receiver
• Real time update of the exact location of the satellites
• Precise measurement of the time of flight
• Interferences with other signals

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 Global Positioning System (GPS) -
II

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