PHYSYCS: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

ELECTRIC
CURRENT IN
VARIOUS MEDIA
CREATED BY JACLIN DUJA, NICA GOJAN, & TRAIAN BELEAC
Presentation 1 Resistance-temperature relationship
outline
2 Superconductvity

3 Electric current in semiconductors

4 Doping semiconductors

5 Semiconductor diode

6 Transitors

7 Electric current in gases

8 Electric current in liquids

9 Faraday's laws of electrolysis

 Resistance-temperature relationship
Current flows through a conductor but it does not do so with complete freedom. This happens because the flow of electrons is impeded
by collision between the electrons and atoms of the conductor. This gives rise to a phenomenon called RESISTANCE (ohms).

• Good conductors have relatively low resistance.

• Materials that offer very high resistance are good insulators.

The resistivity of a conductor depends on

temperature. For most metals, the resistivity
increases with temperature and the change is
linear over a limited range of temperature :

ρ = ρ0 [1 + α (T – T0 )]

-where ρ and ρ0 are the resistivities at temperatures T

(in °C) and T0 , respectively.
α is called the temperature coefficient of
resistivity - its unit is per degree celsius.
The equation can be rearranged to obtain an
expression for temperature coefficient of
resistivity :
α= 1/p0 * Δρ/ΔT
ρ = ρ0 + ρ0 α (T – T0 )
where Δρ = (ρ – ρ0 ) and ΔT = T – T0
A length of copper wire (α = 0.004041 at 20°C) has a resistance of 5 ohms at
20 degrees Celsius. Calculate its resistance if the temperature were to
increase to 50 degrees Celsius.
Now, take that calculated resistance, and that new temperature of 50°C, and calculate
what the resistance of the wire should go to if it cools back down to 20°C. Treat this as
a separate problem, working through all the calculations, and don’t just say “5 ohms”
because you know the original conditions!
Answer: R50°C = 5.606 Ω
If you got an answer of R20°C = 4.927 Ω for the second calculation, you made a
common mistake that is not always warned against in textbooks! Try the math again. If
you got the proper answer of 5 Ω upon doing the second calculation, try to figure out
why someone may have calculated 4.927 Ω taking the temperature from 50°C down to
20°C.
NOTE:
One thing students need to learn is they can’t simply use the resistance-temperature
formula as it is normally given if the “reference” (starting) temperature is not the same
as the temperature at which α is specified at!
 Superconductivity

Temperature dependence of resistivity led

scientists to study the behaviour of materials at
very low temperatures.

They observed that certain metals and their

alloys lost their resistivity completely below a
certain temperature, called transition
temperature, which is specific to the material. In
such materials, current, once set up, remained
unchanged for ever without needing an external
source to maintain it. Such materials were
termed as superconductors.

Such materials were termed as

superconductors.
Superconductivity

It was soon realised that superconductors, if they

may exist near room temperature, will bring in
revolutionary changes in technology. (These
have been termed as high temperature
superconductors.)

For example, energy efficient powerful

electromagnets made of superconducting coils
may levitate vehicles above a magnetic track and
make a high speed transportation system
possible.

Does potassium become a

superconductor if it is cooled down to
nearly absolute zero?
 Electric current in semiconductors
A semiconductor is an element or compound that conducts
electricity under some conditions but not others.

This property of being neither a good insulator nor a good

conductor makes semiconductors useful for controlling electric
current. They are the basis of electronics.

Since these materials are neither prone to losing electrons

(generating free electrons) nor gaining electrons, their valence
shells tend to contain four electrons.

The resistance of semiconductors decreases quickly as their

temperature increases. Elemental semiconductors (materials with
only one element) include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon,
germanium, selenium, silicon, sulphur, and tellurium.
 Electric current in semiconductors

Silicon is the best known of

these as they form the basis of
a large number of electric
circuits. Semiconductors are
used a lot in the modern
economy, especially in the IT
industry, where Taiwan
dominates the market with its
semiconductor supply chain.

How does the resistance of semiconductors What is considered to be the best elemental
change with temperature? semiconductor?

Answer: It decreases as temperature increases. Answer: Silicon

 Doping semiconductors
Doping is the process of purposefully introducing impurities into a semiconductor with the goal of modulating its specific
electrical/structural/optical properties.

semiconductors
N-type semiconductors
carry current mainly in the form of
negatively-charged electrons;
Doping is done via atoms with 5
valence electrons (donors)
P-type semiconductors
have charge carriers known as
electron holes (positively
charged); Doping is done via 3
valence electrons (acceptor)

A small amount of either type of doping can turn

2 types of impurities are added to germanium:
a semiconducting crystal into a viable conductor.
Dopants are the main factors that determine how a Arsenic (5 valence electrons) a
semiconductor operates, increasing/decreasing its Indium (3 valence electrons) b
conductivity, transforming it into an extrinsic Which type of semiconductor is obtained each time?
semiconductor.
• n-type
Answer:
• p-type
 Semiconductor diode

Diodes are the simplest devices that can be made with semiconductors.
They are used to rectify alternating current into direct current.

In diodes, current is able to flow in one direction but not the other.

However, if the battery is Diodes are used a lot in

This device is formed when a P-
flipped and hooked up in optics, LEDs and solar
type and an N-type semiconductor
the opposite direction, no panels cannot exist without
are put together. The combination
current flows because there diodes.
of these semiconductors does not
is no movement of
itself conduct electricity. Instead,
electrons across the P-N
negative electrons from one side
junction because the
are attracted to the positive
electrons move straight
terminal of a battery and current
through the wire to the
can flow when a battery is
battery instead of crossing
attached.
the gap.
 Transitors
A transistor is a device made from 3 semiconductors used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power.

The transistor is one of the basic building

blocks of modern electronics. It has 3
terminals
Transistors are like traffic signs in the electric circuit: they tell the
collector, base and emitter current when to "speed up" (amplify) or "turn back" (switch).
Transistors are one of the most important daily uses of
for connection to an electronic circuit.
semiconductors. They are very important in IT, as most computers
contain millions of transistors.
A voltage or current applied to
one pair of the transistor's
True or false
terminals controls the current
Transistors are the simplest devices made of semiconductor material.
through another pair of
terminals. Answer: False.
 Electric current in liquids and gases
All electric currents consist of charges in motion. But this motion of
charges is different in different forms of matter.

In a SOLID conductor, the current is

carried by electrons so the flow of charge
is in a single direction.

But in LIQUIDS AND GASES, it is

possible for current to flow in two
directions because of ionisation.
 Wa tc h this
video for a
thourough
expla nation of
the topic!
 Conduction in gases
Gases, unlike metals and electrolytes under normal
conditions, consist of electrically neutral atoms and
molecules, and therefore they are not good electrical
conductors.
These free electrons then collide with the atoms of the gas and knock
some more electrons free. The atoms, because of excessive proton
then become positively charged ions.

Since gases do not have many free electrons they are generally
e
insulators.

The negatively charged electrons move towards the positive point

(high potential), and the ions move towards the negative point (low
potential). This opposite (two-directional) flow of charges causes the
current to flow.

But the few free electrons that are there start moving with
increased speed when a strong potential difference is applied
between two points inside a container filled with a gas.
 ?
Under what conditions is a gas a conductor
of electricity?

A neutral gas is not a conductor of electricity. However, if a

large voltage is applied across a
container of gas, some of the gas molecules will be ionized,
i.e., will lose an electron, and
thus the gas will become a conductor. A gaseous conductor is
called a plasma.
 Conduction in liquids
Absolutely pure water is an insulator.

However, if an impurity is present in

water in the form of an ionised
substances, it behaves like a conductor.

For example, when salt dissolves in water, its constituents,

sodium and chlorine, are separated into positive Na+ and
negative ions Cl- , respectively, and when this solution has two
points at different potentials, the sodium ions will flow towards
the negative point, and the chlorine ions will begin moving
towards the positive point.

Electric current in solutions like this is a result of charges

flowing in opposite directions and in this way it resembles
flow of current in gases.
 Topic's
demonstration
Faraday's laws of electrolysis (1)

Faraday's first law of m = kΔq = k* I* t

electrolysis states that the
amount of decomposition m mass of the substance
during electrolysis
q charge
is proportional to the quantity
of current passed. k electrochemical constant of the elements (kg/C or kg/A.t)

I current

t the time in seconds

And the charge can be expressed in

terms of current over a period of time:

Q
_
I= and Q = i*t
t
 Faraday's law for electrolysis (2)
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis states that, when the same
quantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes, the
mass of the substances deposited are proportional to their
respective chemical equivalent or equivalent weight.

m mass of the substance released (g)

(first law)
F 986485 C/mol is the Faraday number

M the molar mass of the substance (g/mol)

n the number of electrons transferred in the electrode process

I current

t the time in seconds

Applications of Faraday Laws of Electrolysis
The applications of Faraday Laws of Electrolysis include:

Faraday laws helps in the determination of equivalent

masses of elements.

Based on the Laws of Electrolysis, non-metals like

Hydrogen, Fluorine, chlorine are obtained.

They are also applied in the field of Electron Metallurgy for

obtaining metals like sodium, potassium.

the process of Electroplating involves Electrolysis.

Calculating Voltage and generating electricity.

Electrolysis is an answer to renewable electricity storage.

Farady's Law
in action!
Problems based on Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis
Problems based on Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis
THANK YOU!
CREATED BY JACLIN DUJA, NICA GOJAN, & TRAIAN BELEAC