DATA ENCODING

CHAPTER 4
Lesson Outcomes

• At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

– Discuss the concept of digital-to-digital transmission
• Characteristics of line coding technique
• Illustrate the signals diagram using line coding scheme
(unipolar, NRZ & Manchester)
– Discuss the concept of digital-to-analog transmission
• ASK, FSK, PSK and QAM
• Perform calculation related to digital-to-analog transmission
Digital Transmission

• Digital-to-digital transmission
– The transmission of digital data using digital signal
– Three techniques:
• Line coding
• Block coding
• Scrambling
Line Coding Scheme

• Characteristics of line coding:

– Signal element
– Data element
– Signal rate (baud rate)
– Data rate (bit rate)
Line Coding Scheme

Signal Element and Data Element

• In data communications, our goal is to send data elements
• Data element – the smallest unit that can represent a
piece of information (the bit)
• Signal element – the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital
signal. A signal element carries data elements
• Data elements are what we need to send; signal elements
are what we can send.
• Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the
carriers
Line Coding Scheme
Image source: Data Communications
And Networking, Forouzan

Signal element versus data element

Line Coding Scheme

Signal Rate and Data Rate

• Signal rate defines number of signal elements sent in 1s. The
unit is the baud
• Data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in
1s. The unit is bits per second (bps)
• Goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while
decreasing the signal rate
• Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission;
decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth
S = c × N × baud
N is the data rate (bps); c is the case factor (varies for each case); S is the
signal rate and r is the number of data elements carried by each signal
element
 Example 1
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100
kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is 0.5?
Solution
S = c × N × = 0.5 x 100,000 x = 50,000 baud = 50 kbaud
Line Coding Scheme
Line Coding
Scheme

Unipolar Polar Bipolar

NRZ RZ Biphase AMI

NRZ-L Manchester

Differential
NRZ-I
Manchester
Unipolar

• Uses only one amplitude level, positive voltage.

• Bit 1 – positive voltage; bit 0 – zero voltage or idle
line
 Image source: Data Communications
Unipolar scheme And Networking, Forouzan
Polar

• NRZ-L
– Bit 0 is represented by positive voltage, bit 1
represented by negative voltage

Image source: Data Communications

NRZ-L scheme And Networking, Forouzan
Polar

• Biphase
– Manchester
• A negative to positive transition represents bit 1, and a
positive to negative transition represents bit 0

Image source: Data Communications

Manchester scheme And Networking, Forouzan
Exercise

Given a bit stream 01011010. Draw a separate graph

for:
1. Unipolar
2. NRZ-L
3. Manchester
Analog Transmission

• Digital-to-analog transmission
– Transmission of digital data using analog signal
– Bit rate (N) – the number of data elements (bits)
transmitted in a second
– Baud rate (S) – the number of signal elements
transmitted in a second
– r – the number of data elements carried in one signal
elements
– The baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate
– S = N x 1/r (r = log2L)
Example 1

An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If

1000 signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate
and the bit rate

Solution
In this case, r=4, S=1000 bauds/s
and N is unknown. So value of N:
N = S × r = 1000 × 4 = 4000 bps
Example 2

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried
by each signal element? How many signal elements do
we need?

Solution
Analog Transmission

Digital-to-
analog
conversion

Amplitude shift Frequency shift Phase shift

keying (ASK) keying (FSK) keying (PSK)

Quadrature
amplitude
modulation
(QAM)
Analog Transmission

Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)

• The amplitude of the signal is varied to represent
binary 1 or 0 but frequency and phase are remain
constant.
• The speed of transmission is limited by the physical
characteristics of the transmission medium.
• Disadvantage is the ASK method most affected by
noise – usually affects the amplitude.
• BW=(1+d) x N where BW is bandwidth, N is baud rate,
d is factor related to the condition of line(minimum
value is 0)
Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)

ASK Image source: Data Communications

And Networking, Forouzan
Example 1
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?

Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that
our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula
for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).

B = (1+d) x S  100 = 2 x N x  100 = 2 x N  N = 50 kbps

Example 2
Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal
transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-
duplex.

Solution
Example 3
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what are
the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution
Example 4
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz), draw the full-
duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the carriers and the
bandwidths in each direction. Assume there is no gap between the
bands in the two directions.

Solution
Figure 1 Solution to Example 4
Analog Transmission

Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)

• The frequency is varied to represent binary 1 and 0,
both amplitude and phase remain constant.
• Avoid most of the noise problems of ASK but limited
to the physical capabilities of the carrier.
• BW = N + F where F is the difference between two
carrier
Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)

Image source: Data Communications

FSK And Networking, Forouzan
Example 1
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans
from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency
and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with
d = 1?

Solution
This problem is similar to Example 1 (ASK), but we are modulating
by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose
2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means

B = (1+d) x S + 2Δf 100 = 2S + 50  2S = 50  S = 25 kBaud

 N = 25 kbps
Example 2
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal
transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex
mode, and the carriers are separated by 3000 Hz.

Solution
Example 3
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth of the
medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the two carriers is
2000 Hz. Transmission is in full-duplex mode.

Solution
Analog Transmission

Phase Shift Keying

• The phase is varied to represent binary 1 and 0, both
amplitude and frequency are remain constant
• If two different phase are used(0 and 180 degrees)
the method is called 2-PSK. If four different phase are
used(0,90,180,270), the method is called 4-PSK. If
eight different phase are used
(0,45,90,135,180,225,270,315) , the method called
8PSK.
• The relationship between phase to bit value can be
shown in table or by constellation diagram
Phase Shift Keying(PSK)

PSK
PSK Constellation

PSK constellation
 4-PSK

The 4-PSK method

4-PSK Constellation

The 4-PSK characteristics

8-PSK Constellation

The 8-PSK characteristics

 Bandwidth for PSK

Relationship between baud rate and bandwidth in PSK

 Example 1
Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at 2000
bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.

Solution
For 4-PSK the baud rate is one-half of the bit rate. The baud
rate is therefore 1000. A PSK signal requires a bandwidth
equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the bandwidth 1000Hz
Example 2
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution
Constellation Diagram

• A diagram that defines the amplitude and phase of a

signal element

Image source: Data Communications

And Networking, Forouzan
 Examples Image source: Data Communications
And Networking, Forouzan

Bit Phase Bit Phase Bit Phase

0 0° 0 180° 00 225°
1 0° 1 0° 01 135°
10 315°
11 45°
Review Questions

• Differentiate between data element and signal element.

• Differentiate between signal rate and data rate.
• Differentiate between ASK, FSK and PSK modulation.
• Define constellation diagram.
End of Chapter 4