QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

In the words of Epicharmus, which are the motto of this

work, “Mind sees, and Mind hears; all things else are
deaf and blind,” it is not merely by looking at a plant, or
a mineral, or an animal, that any one really sees it. This
is true of all the productions of nature, and it is equally
true of whatever is elevating, or beautiful, or graceful, or
minute, in the works of man. It is true of a cathedral, a
statue, or a picture, or Grecian vases or of ancient coins.
It is likewise true of handwriting. (Hon. Edward
Twisleton, In Handwriting of Junius)
Genuine documents are sometimes suspected and attacked
and doubt are occasionally set aside as fraudulent, while
on the other hand great of fraudulent documents
undoubtedly wholly escape suspicion and pass as
genuine (Albert Osborne).
The crime of forgery is probably quite as old as writing and
on a number of occasions, history has been changed by
documents subsequently proved to be forgeries.
What is a document?
A document is any material substance bearing a
representation of the thoughts of man by means of a mark
or symbol.
What is Questioned Document?
Any documents about which some issues has been raised
or which is under scrutiny or of doubtful origin.
Material associated with the matter under investigation
about which there is some question. Authenticity of all or
part of the document may be in dispute or the document
may have marks or writings that may be of evidential
value.
What is Questioned Document Examination?
Forensic Document Examination or Questioned Document
Examination is the scientific study, analysis and
comparison of questioned or disputed handwriting or
documents for authentication or legal purpose.
Who conducted the questioned document examination?
The examination of questioned document is conducted by
a qualified expert whose findings may be presented as
testimony in a court of law.
The examiners are called Document Examiners or in a
layman’s term Document Experts or Handwriting Experts,
The theory upon which handwriting is identified and
differentiated is based on the principle that there is no
duplication of material things and that no two individual
are identical because each person has an individuality
which set him apart from all other persons.
The general rule admits that proof of an expert, who has
compared the specimen with other writings of the same
person, of every person’s writing there is a peculiar
prevailing characteristic which distinguishes it from
handwriting of any other person.
Forensic Document Examination applies the principles of
science and logic to all questioned document problems
in order to determine the origin, authenticity and
genuineness of documents
Why do people submit documents for examination?
When people become suspicious of the letter/documents
they received, they submit them for examination to verify
whether this documents are genuine or forged.

The examination of a document is conducted to determine:

a.Its origin
b.Its production
c.Its production process
d.Its inscription
e.Its chastity
f.Its integrity
g.Its legitimacy
Forensic Document Examiner is a forensic scientist whose
specialty centers around paper documents and related material.
Examination of handwriting is the most common activity, but the
field includes the study of almost anything related to documents
about which a forensic issue could arrive.
Various kinds of Examination conducted by Document
Examiner:
1. Handwriting Examination;
2. Imprint Examination;
3. Reprographic Examination;
4. Writing Media Examination;
5. Dating Examination;
6. Examination of Falsification and Alteration;
7. Examination of Invisible, Faded Obscured Writing and
Impressions of Writing.
 The role of a Questioned Document Examiner does not end in
the generation of examination results and offering of expert’s
opinion. But rather it is the study and responsibility of a
document examiner to testify in court if the need arises, which
usually happen when a document case is filed in court.
Questioned Document Examination is frequently found in case
of:
a.Forgery
b.Counterfeiting
c.Mail
d.Fraud
e.Kidnapping
f.Embezzlement
g.Gambling
h.Organized crime
i. White collar crime
ii. Art crime
iii. Theft
iv. Robbery
v. Arson
vi. Burglary
vii. Homicide
viii. Serial murder
ix. Psychological profiling
x. Deviant sex crime
Questioned Document Examination’s strength drawn from civil
law, is that expert opinion can turn (alleged) eyewitness opinion.
Historically, Questioned Document Examination has been
somewhat of an inclusive profession, even to the point where
so-called pseudo-experts where sometimes welcome and even
today, it suffers from a bit of identity crisis in that at least
eight (8) different areas or related areas can be identified.
Questioned Document Examiner – A document examiner
analyzes any questioned document and is capable of more
than just questions of authorship limited only by their access
to laboratory equipment.
Historical Dating – This is work involving the verification of
age and worth of a document or object, sometimes done by a
document examiner, and can get as complicated
Paper Investigator – This is work that often overlaps with that
of the document examiner and focuses on the money trail and
criminal intent
Paper and Ink Specialist – These are public or private experts
who type date, source, and/or catalogue various type of paper,
watermarks, ink, printing,/copy/fax machines, computer
cartridges, etc. using chemical methods
Forgery Specilaist – These are public or private experts who
analyze altered, obliterated, changed or doctored documents
and photos using infrared lighting, expensive spectrographic
equipment or digital enhancement techniques.
Handwriting Analysts – These are usually psychology experts
who assess personality traits from handwriting samples, also
called graphologist or graph analysts; Forensic stylistics
refers to the same purpose but looking at semantics, spelling,
word choice, syntax and phraseology.
Typewriting Analysts – These are experts on the origin, make,
and model used in typewritten material.
Computer Crime Investogator – This is an emerging group that
related to questioned document examination through some
common investigative and testimonial procedures.
The Word of an Forensic Science Man
“If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of
science. You have no victim to revenge, no guilty or
innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear witness
within the limit of science”. (Brouardel)
As a man of science, one must always avoid outside
influence. One must not allow himself to be influence in
his opinion by an overzealous client. His conclusion must
be based solely and entirely on his findings deduced from
the examination performed.
In the interest of justice and fair play especially in
court litigation, a forensic science man should never lose
sight of the important fact that he must not only work to
convict the guilty but he must strive with equal vigor to
clear the innocent.
Any examination made should be conducted in accordance
with the existing procedure and the results of the
examination are based on facts presented to him.
He must fair and impartial on the witness stand. He shall
not be a partisan to anybody and it is his to present the
truth and facts as they exist.
Yes, it is true that there is no law or responsible
authority, which contends that handwriting identification,
is an exact science. But the most accurate description of
what handwriting identification is that, it is a technique
which applies a number of arts and sciences.
Art, because it needs skill, knowledge, power of
performing certain action acquired through experience,
study and training.
 Science, because it is a branch of study which is
concerned with an accurate classification of facts resulting
from intelligent observation and accurate reasoning leading
to correct recognition of similarities and differences.
The document examiner who would truly serve the
needs of justice must go to the witness stand fully
prepared to support his conclusion with testimony that
is factual, clearly understandable and persuasive.
Expert testimony should be measured by its
convincingness. The document examiner strives
constantly for objectivity and the avoidance of
personal bias.
Criterion for Science
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
In a scientific examination if signature, we learn basic
facts first and then reason carefully and logically from
these basic facts according to established and recognized
rules in order to form an opinion or conclusion as to
whether a questioned signature is forged or genuine.
Questioned documents examination involves or
presents tangible problems. Their proper solution
proceeds from reasoning and should never represent an
intrinsic play or credulity.
Classes of Questioned Document
Documents are questioned, disputed and attacked on
many grounds and for various reasons but the great
majority of questioned papers are included in the
following classes:
1. Documents with Questioned Signature
these are the most disputed document, they may be any
commercial or legal paper such as check, note, receipt
draft, order, contract, agreement, will, deed or similar
document, the signature of which is under suspicion.
2. Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations
included are all documents on which it is alleged that
some alterations were made by erasures, addition,
interlineations and substitution. Questions may arise as to
the order or sequence of writing as shown by crossed lines,
age and continuity of writing erasures and changes,
identity of ink, identity of pen and condition, self-
consciousness or unusual care in writing and whether
writing preceded or followed “raise” check and draft notes,
fraudulent interlineations in contract, deed, will and other
legal papers.
3. Questioned or Disputed Holograph Documents
the writing of an entire document is all questioned.
Diligent scrutiny would pay attention to consideration of
the characteristics of the paper, watermarks, ink, pens or
system of writing, slant, spacing and shading of writing,
wording, subject matter, seals folding and ruling.
4. Documents attacked on the question of their age or date

included here are documents in which the age of an

instrument or the age of some part of it is investigated or a
document in which the comparative age of different parts
may have some bearing on the question of its genuineness.
5. Documents attacked on the question of material used in
their production
documents have frequently been shown to be false
because they were dated many years before the paper on
which they were written was made.
6. Documents investigated on the question of typewritten
documents
whether at different types on the same machine or at
the different types on different machines.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged
that they identify some person through handwritings
this class includes all documents, papers, or writing
instruments, by which the handwriting and contents tend to
identify some person.

CHARRED DOCUMENTS
Charred document because of their extremely fragile
nature must be handled as little possible. These are the
burned document because of excessive heat.
Decipherment of a charred document that has been
shattered into small fragments is almost impossible.
Therefore, every precaution must be taken in handling and
transporting the charred residue in order to prevent the
large pieces from becoming badly broken.
 Often when documents are subjected to intense heat the
outer portions are charred first while the central portions
sometime remain legible. Because of the differences in the
degree of carbonization it is sometimes necessary to make
three or four negatives with different exposures and then
utilize all of them in deciphering a document

The infrared photographic method of deciphering

writing on charred documents is useful but it is always
successful because the results are dependent upon the
degree of charring the paper has undergone.
Decipherment of Charred Documents
1.Reflect light examination
2.Alcohol – Glycerin Immersion
3.Polarizing Filters
STANDARD FOR COMPARISON
A standard is a condensed and compact set of authentic
specimens which if adequate and proper should contain a
true cross-section of the material from a known source. It
is used by the document examiner as the basis of
comparison and identification.
Classes of Standard
Collected standard
handwriting executed daily in the course of business,
profession, social and personal affairs.
Requested standard
handwriting prepared upon the request of the
investigation for the sole purpose of comparison with the
questioned document.
 The best standard for comparison are those of the same
general class as the questioned writing and as near as
possible to the same date. This is true for the reason that
the writing of different individuals varies in different
degrees when written at different time and for different
purposes and the only way to learn of these habits of any
writer is through standard writing.
The acceptability of the standard may also be affected
by the age of the person whose writing is alleged to have
been produced. Handwriting is individualized from the
very beginning of learning to write, but this development
become much pronounced as soon as writing is used to
any considerable extent for practical purposes and its
distinct individuality develop much earlier in some writers
than in other.
Good Standard in Document Examination Cases
In cases involving questioned documents, lawyers can
take certain steps to ensure that document examiner has
the necessary materials to perform a thorough and
conclusive examination. A questioned document
examiners examine documents in cases where foul play is
suspected. The document examiner is often a qualified
expert witness, accepted in court by a judge after being
examined and cross-examined by counsel.
The most important factor in any document
examination is the quality of the standards (the document
of known origin that is compared with questioned
documents). The questioned document is important too,
but it is a “given”. It defines the outer limits of the
examination, but how far the examiner can go within the
limits depends on the standard.
The Important Facts about standard documents
There must be no doubt about the authenticity of the
standards. The document examiner needs to be able to rely
on the standards and the standards may need information
needed to form a good opinion.
within the bounds of reasons, there can be too many
standards. Every handwriting show material variation. In
cases where varying letter form is an issue, if the examiner
doesn’t see enough standard writings, he or she will not have
the information needed to form a good opinion.
The best standard are those that most emulate the
timeframe, circumstances, materials and content of the
questioned document. So, look for collected standards
executed close time to the questioned document. This is
especially critical cases involving illness, death, accident,
mental imbalance, substance abuse or anything likely to
cause a dramatic change in the subject’s behavior.
 Content can be important in a document examination. Look
for a standards that share letter combinations, words, phrase or
numbers with the questioned document. When requesting
standards prepare a text that will include such similar content.

Depending on the questioned document, it may be

important to request that subject write in printed or cursive
form. Also, it may be necessary to request samples written
with the unaccustomed hand.
Document examinations often begin with , and even
end with photocopies. When possible, keep track of the
generation of any copy made. With each successive copy
some loss of detail and addition of superfluous markings
can occur. Sometimes a good opinion can be formed
based on photocopies and sometimes it cannot. Of course
originals are always preferred.
SOURCES OF STANDARD
1. Personal Document
2. Education Documents
3. Vocational Documents
4. Financial Documents
5. Social, Recreational, Fraternal Document
6. Corporate Documents
7. Motor Vehicle Documents
8. Military Documents
9. Governmental and Public Records
10. Criminal Documents
11. Miscellaneous Documents
BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION
Handwriting is the result of a very complicated series of
acts, being as a whole a combination of certain forms of
visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long
continued painstaking efforts.
Different Style of Writing
Cursive – writing in which the letters are for the most part
joint together.
Script – any disconnected style of writing in which each
letter is written separately.
Block – all the letters of the alphabet are capitalized.
Handwriting movement embraces all the factors which
are related to the motion of the writing instrument, like
skill, freedom of speed, hesitation, tremors, rhythm, and
the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is
moved that is by finger, hand or arm action may influence
Characteristics is any distinguishing property or mark.
Groups of Characteristics
Class or common characteristics – characteristics common
to a group of people.
Individual characteristics – characteristics which are
highly personal or peculiar and is unlikely to occur in
other instances.
This group of characteristics is acquired either by:
•Outgrown of definite teaching
•Result of imitation
•Accidental condition or circumstances
•Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the
writer as affected by education, by environment and by
occupation .
ELEMENTS OF HANDWRITING
1. Slope or Slant
The angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the
baseline.
2. Size of Handwriting
The size of handwriting as a whole has no great evidential
values. Although majority has preferred size, which they
normally use when space is unlimited, almost everybody
has the capability of altering the absolute size of their
handwriting when circumstances so demand.
3. Ratio and Proportion of Writing
The relation between the tall and short letters is referred to
as the ratio of writings.
4. Relative size letters
Accordingly, the short letters and the critical bodies of
some tall letters should approximately be of the same
width. This feature in handwriting remains unaltered.
5. Initial stroke
In ordinary copybook form, the initial strokes of the initial
letters of a word are present.
6. Terminal Spur
The terminal spur is some letters as “o”, “w”, and the
coded “r” are remarkably consistent in length. If a writer
habitually uses long spurs with these letters then similar
long spurs are certain to be present in every contemporary
specimen of his handwriting.
7. Connecting Strokes
For the character of connections, writing can be classified
as:
•Circular
•Angular
•Elliptical or oblong
8. Letter Designs
It refers to how you execute you handwriting or letters.
9. Hiatus
A hiatus is a gap between strokes. Speed of writings and
defective writing instrument may have an influence on the
number and position of hiatuses.
10. Pen Lift
Pen lift is distinguished from hiatus in that there is an
obvious appearances of a gap in the writing.
11. Hesitation
The irregular thickening of the ink line when the writing
slows down or stops while the writer takes stock of the
position is termed hesitation.
12. Lateral Spacing
Lateral spacing is considered as a common characteristic
when it combined to the ordinary copybook form.
Abnormally wide spacing or cramping of letters may be
regarded as personal characteristics of value.
13. Shading
The splitting of the pen nib, resulting in the widening of
the ink lines, as controlled by the variation in pen pressure
known as shading.
14. Line Quality
The visible record in the written strokes of the movements
and manner of holding the writing instruments is
characterized by the term line quality.
15. Writing Instrument
The use of different writing instruments may have
influence on the handwriting only in regard to the general
appearance and the amount of details present as affected
by the nature of the writing instrument.
16. Alignment
Alignment is the relation of parts of the whole line of
writing or line of individual letters in a word to the
baseline.
17. Rhythm
The flowing succession of motion which is recorded as the
harmonious recurrences of stress, impulse motion is called
rhythm.
18. Tremor
It is a writing portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes or one
that deviates from a uniform stroke.
Characteristics of Tremor of Fraud:
1.Inequality in movement at any place in any stroke or line with
strokes that are too strong and vigorous combined with weak,
hesitating strokes.
2.Frequent interruption of movement.
3.Unequal distribution of ink on upward and downward strokes
4.Varying pen pressure
5.Too many pen lifts on the wrong places.
Characteristics of Tremor of Age or Extreme Weaknesses:
1. Unusual and erratic departure of lines from its intended
course.
2. Abrupt recovery
3. Awkward digression or distinction which may be due
to imperfect sight.
4. Abbreviation or even omission of parts of letters or
even of whole letters.
5. Often, very uneven alignment and may entirely
disregard a line near which they are written specially
if the line is indistinct.
Characteristics of Illiterate Tremor:

1. A general irregularity that is not due to weakness but to

lack of skill, to a mental uncertainty as to form, and to
a general muscular clumsiness resulting from
unfamiliarity with the whole writing process.
2. A pronounced irregularity in alignment even in ruled
paper some being above the line, through the line, or
the words may individually go up the line, so that the
end of each word is higher than the beginning
19. Variation of Handwriting
These are the normal or usual deviation found between repeated
specimen of any individual handwriting or in the product of
any typewriter.
FORGERY
A signature is a combination of rather limited letters and design,
which due to frequent use, becomes automatic with many
writings.
A signature is the name of a person written by his own hand as a
sign of acknowledgement. In writing his signature, a person
produces a particular pattern which contains a personal concept
of design and pattern, which often repeated, serves to
distinguish his signature from all others.
Forgery is committed by any person who with intent to defraud
sign the name of another person or of a fictitious person,
knowing that he has no authority to do so; or falsely makers
alters, forgers or counterfeits any check, draft bill for the
payment of money of property; or counterfeits or forgers the
seal or handwriting of another, knowing the same tp be fake,
altered, forged or counterfeited, with intent to prejudice,
damage, or defraud any person.
Forgery is the production of alteration of written or printed
material for fraudulent purposes.

Kinds of Forgery
1.Simulated
2.Traced
3.Simple
Simulated Forgery
This type refers to the act of simulation, copying or
imitation of genuine signature or writing.
The forger avails himself of a model genuine signature
which he places before him in order to copy the same.
Oftentimes, the forger undertakes some practice before
proceedings to do his work of simulation or imitation.
Traced Forgery
This type, as the name implies, is the result of an
attempt to transfer to a fraudulent document an exact
facsimile or outlined of genuine signature or writing by
some tracing process. It is, therefore, any fraudulent
signature which was executed by actually following the
outline of a signature with any writing instrument
Kinds of Tracing Processes
1. Carbon Processes or Carbon Outline Processes
A carbon paper is interleaved between the genuine
signature (which is placed on top) and the document
intended to be forged (which is at the bottom). The outline
of the model signature is traced with a dry pen or sharp
pointed instrument with considerable pressure to make a
carbon offset on the fraudulent document.
2. Indention Process
An indented or canal like outline of the genuine
signature is produced on the fraudulent document (which
is placed at the bottom) by tracing with considerable
pressure the outline of the genuine signature with a sharp
pointed instrument. The indented outline is then directly
inked in and in some instances, first retracted with pencil
very lightly before it is finally “inked-in”.
3. Projection or ‘Transmitted Light” Process
The fraudulent document is placed immediately above
the genuine signature. With strong light directed through
the two sheets of papers either from below or behind, the
outline which is seen thru the upper sheet is then retraced
with any suitable writing instrument.
Simple Forgery
This is the of forgery commonly known as
“SPURIOUS” signature. The forger who is confronted
with the absence of a model signature will not attempt to
produce a facsimile of the genuine signature but merely
signs the same either in his own handwriting or in a
modified (disguised) handwriting, and then devises ways
and means of passing the document for his personal gain
and profit before the obvious fraud is detected.
This is commonly used if “fictitious persons” cases
invariably used by the CHECK-THIEF who purloins,
endorses and passed government, corporation or company
checks, or who procures printed check forms, completed
and endorses them with fictitious signatures in order to
make them pass as genuine.
Characteristics of a Genuine Signatures:
1. Degree of skill – Genuine signature even if showing tremor
will show some free connecting and terminal strokes made
by the movements of the hand.
2. Firmness of strokes – In genuine signatures, hesitations and
stops are on the natural places.
3. Habitual speed of writing – Even in slow and unskillful
signature, there will be consistency in speed.
4. Fraudulent muscular movement – In genuine signatures the
upward strokes show more smoothness and freedom than
the downward strokes.
5. Pattern of shading and emphasis
6. Presence of natural variation – As no two signatures are
exactly alike, a certain amount of natural variation is
expected and consequently allowed for in letter design.
7. Coordination, continuity and rhytm.
8. Carelessness.
Detection of Simulated Forgeries:
1. There is slow and careful motion; the pen is
continuously applied to the paper until it is finally
lifted.
2. Show bad quality of the ink lines.
3. The ends of the ink lines are thickened rather than
tapered.
4. Multiple pen lifts and pen lifts on wrong places.
5. Patchwork appearance of the signature.
6. Pressure of delicate retouching or patching.
How Simulated Forgery is produced:
1. The forger carefully studies the genuine signature he
intends to copy. By this, he acquires a mental picture
of the letter design, lateral spacing and other obvious
features.
2. There is constant practice from memory, or that the
genuine model is placed in front of him (forger).
Portion by portion of the signature is mastered first,
and finally the signature as a whole.
3. After each attempt, the forger compares it with the
signature, which he copied. Any defect or errors are
noted for corrections in the future.
4. The study and practice are carried on until the forger
feels the capability to writing a convincing forgery.
5. This kind of forgery is least often detected.
ALTERATION
Alteration – are the changes made on a document after its
original preparation.
A change that appears on a document should not be
readily considered fraudulent; the alteration should be
considered in a thorough and careful manner to be able to
determine what the reasonable inference is from all the
facts. It is therefore, become necessary to distinguish
which is fraudulent from that which is genuine alteration.
An obvious, necessary change in a document often is
evidence not of fraud but of genuineness.
A delicate and partly concealed change may be very
suspicious and, therefore it is fraudulent.
fraudulent changes naturally are made in a hidden
manner and they never be discovered, if, special attention
is not directed to this matter.
Kinds of Alteration
1. Erasure – the removal of writing, typewriting or
printing from a document.
a. Chemical Erasure – the writing is effaced by the use
of liquid ink eradicator.
b. Mechanical Erasure – the writing is effaced by
rubbing with a rubber eraser or scratching out with
knife or other sharp instrument.
How to detect mechanical erasures indications?
- Loosening or disturbance of paper fibers and this
creates a feathering effect on the ink. (felt-tip-pen)
- Thinning out of effected area resulting to a
transparency.
- Appearance of fibers has a grassy substance on the
outward up-result position.
2. Obliteration – the blotting out or smearing over of
writing to make the original invisible or undecipherable.
3. Addition – any matter made a part of the document
after its original preparation.
4. Subtraction – any matter rubbed out, strike out and/ or
scratched out after its original preparation.
5. Inter-lineation or insertion – the term “insertion” and
“inter-lineation” include the addition of writing and other
material between lines or paging or the addition of whole
pages to a document
6. Smeared – over writing – often accomplished by
covering or smearing over the original writing with an
opaque substance.
Decipherment – the process of making out what is illegible
or what has been effaced. Decipherment refers to the
process of reading or making out the material, which is
illegible without actually developing or restoring the
original writing on the document itself.
Ink eradicator – ink eradicator consists of chemical
solutions which are capable of erasing ink.
Secret ink – a material used for writing which is not visible
until treated by some developing process or substance.
Ball point pen – a writing instrument which has as its
marking tip a small freely rotating ball bearing which rolls
the ink in the paper. This pen uses highly viscous non
aqueous ink.
Fountain pen – a modern nib pen which contains a
reservoir of ink in a specially designed sacks or chamber.
After complete filling, the pen is capable of writing a