MICROBIOLOGY

FOOD
MICROBIOLOGY
Principle of food
microbiology
Food provide an ideal environment for microbial survival and growth by
metabolizing nutrients and making end product like acid, gas and
alcohol.
Microorganism are introduced into food when they are being grown in
the soil, during harvesting, handling, storage and packaging.
Food that have been intentionally altered by carefully controlling the
activity of bacterial, yeasts or molds are called fermented. E.g. Beer,
wine, cheese etc.
Biochemical changes in food, when perceived as unpleasant are called
spoilage.
 Cont. Principle of food
microbiology
Growth of pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum, E.coli
0157:H7, Salmonella species can cause food borne illness but
generally does not result in perceptible changes in quality of a food.
Multiplication of these microorganism can be suppressed by
storing food at cold temperature or by adding growth – inhibiting
ingredients in a process called preservation.
Effect of microorganism on
food
Classified
 Beneficial
 Detrimental
 Neutral
•Beneficial effect
Food is fermented by addition of microbes or microbial products to
alter or improve flavor, taste or texture. E.g. Wine and beer rely on
microbial metabolism for their production
Microbes can serve as food.
 Cont. of Effect of microorganism
on food
Detrimental Effect
- food poisoning of food borne illness
 Chemical in origin: Pesticides, food additive
 Biological in origin: Living things on /in food
 Infection: Bacterial, protozoan, worm eg. Genera of Salmonella and
Campylobacter
 Intoxication :Bacterial, fungal. eg. Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus.

-food spoilage
Growth of microbes make food unfit for consumption; add undesirable
flavors, appearance and smell which destroys food value.
 Cont. of Effect of microorganism
on food
Neutral effect
Presence or growth of microbes that do not harm or change the
nature of the food.
 Factors influencing the growth of
microorganism in food
Two factors

 Factors related to food itself known as intrinsic factors e.g. Water

availability, pH, nutrients , antimicrobial chemical and biological
barriers

 Environmental condition also known as extrinsic factors e.g..

Atmosphere and storage temperature.
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
INTRINSIC
 Water Availability
-measured in term of water activity (aw)
it’s the ratio of relative humidity of the air over a test solution
compared with that of distilled water.
-Fresh meat and milk have ample water hence will support growth of
many microorganism
-Bread, nuts and dried food provide an arid environment
- Some sugar rich food though moist has its water not available due to
the water chemically interacting with sugar.eg. Jam and Jellies.
-Highly salted food follow same as sugar rich food. Microorganism are
dehydrated by hypertonic condition and cannot grow
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
Food aw
Pure water 1.00
Most fresh food 0.98
Ham 0.91
Jam 0.85
Some Cake 0.70

Microorganism aw
Most spoilage bacterial 0.90
Most Spoilage yeast 0.88
Most Spoilage molds 0.80
* Staphylococcus species 0.86
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
Microorganism aw
Halophilic bacteria 0.75
Xerophilic molds 0.65
Osmophilic yeast 0.61
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
pH
Many species of bacteria including most pathogen are inhibited by
acidic condition and cannot grow at pH<4.
An exception is lactic acid bacteria which can grow at pH< 3.5 and
are used in the production of fermented foods such as yogurt.
Fungi can grow at a lower pH than most spoilage bacteria, leading to
some foods such as fruits eventually becoming moldy.
pH of food also determines if toxin can be produce. Clostridium
botulinum don’t grow at pH<4.5
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
Nutrients
Microorganism requiring a particular vitamin cannot grow in food
lacking that vitamin
Members of genus Pseudomonas spoil variety of foods because they
can synthesize essential nutrients and multiply in various environment
including refrigeration
Biological barriers
- Rinds, shell and other covering aid in protecting some food from
microorganism invasion
E.g. Eggs with intact shell quality last long.
Reason whole lemon last longer than sliced.
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
Antimicrobial Chemical
-Some food prevent spoilage as a result of containing natural
antimicrobial chemical
e.g. Egg (white) – lysozyme
Garlic – allicin
Cranberries – benzoic acid
Herbs and spices -Aldehydic and phenolic compound
Green and Black Tea - Polyphenols
 Cont. of Factors influencing the
growth of microorganism in food
EXTRINSIC FACTORS
 Storage temperature
 Below freezing point, water become crystallized and inaccessible, effectively halting
microbial growth.
 At low temperature above freezing, many enzymatic reaction are either slow down or
non existent which results in some microorganism unable to grow. those that do, do at
a reduced rate.
 Atmosphere
- Presence of oxygen affects type of microbial population able to grow in food. E.g.
Members of genus Pseudomonas are obligate aerobes hence cannot grow at condition
that lack oxygen. However that lack of oxygen can enable growth of other bacteria
including obligate anaerobes Clostridium botulinum.
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION BY LACTIC ACID BACTERIA
E.g. Yoghurt, pickles, cheese and some sausages.
Lactic acid bacteria include the following group of organism member of
the genera:
Lactobacillus
Lactococcus
Streptococcus
Leuconostoc
Pediococcus
 Raw Milk
Microorganism in food and Beverage
Pasteurization
production( fermented
Heat treatment
Homogenization
food)
CHEESE
Addition of culture (Lactococcus
cremoris and Lactococcus lactis)
Additive(eg. Renin)
Processed
Coagulation (curd formation) Whey drainage
soft chess
cutting of curd

Washing
Salting
Inoculation with ripeners

Ripening (curing)

Cutting and packaging

 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)

Yoghurt
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
Other fermented food by lactic acid bacteria includes:
Acidophilus Milk - Lactobacillus acidophilus
Pickled Vegetable
- Sauerkraut (Cabbage)
 Pickles (Cucumber)

These rely on naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria living on the vegetable
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
ALCOHOL FERMENTATIONS BY YEAST
WINE
Produced from the fermentation of fruit juice, usually from grapes
The grapes are crushed to form a “must”
For white wines, white grapes are usually used, and the skins are
removed from the must (“pressing”) before fermentation
For red wines, red or black grapes are used, and the skin is allowed to
remain during fermentation
For rosé wines, red grapes are used and the juice is allowed to remain in
contact with the skins just long enough for a rose or pink color to
develop
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
Sulfur dioxide is generally added to inhibit the growth natural
microbial population of the grape including acetic acid bacteria
Fermentation is initiated by addiction of specially selected strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. During fermentation most of the sugar is
converted to ethanol and CO2, resulting in a final alcohol content of
less than 14%.
 Dry wine – complete fermentation of sugar
 Sweet wine- contains residual sugar

• Malolactic fermentation by bacteria in the must converts

malic acid into lactic acid. Primarily species of Leuconostoc.
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
After fermentation the wine is siphoned several times to remove the
clear juice from the sediment of yeast and particulate debris.
The wine are then aged in oak barrels, contributing to the
complexity of the flavor.
Wine is clarified by filtration and then bottled
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
BEER
Produced by the fermentation of malted grain
Malted grain: Grain that has been allowed to germinate, then dried in a kiln &
perhaps roasted
Germinating the grain causes the production of a number of enzymes, most
notably α- and β-amylase
Malted grains that may be used are barley, rye, or wheat
Dried roasted malt is ground, mixed with adjuncts (starches, sugars or
whole grains such as rice, corn or sorghum) and then soaked in warm
water in a process called mashing.
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
The liquid wort is the separated for the spent grains.
The wort is pumped into the brew kettle, where it is boiled while hops
are slowly added. The wort is separated from the hops and cooled.
A special strain of Saccharomyces or brewer’s yeasts added to the wort.
Fermentation begins. Excess yeast cells are removed after fermentation.
Top-fermenting yeasts produce ales
Bottom-fermenting yeasts produce lagers
Beer is ripened in the lagering tank. Yeast and unwanted flavor
compounds settle out. It is the clarified by filtration, pasteurized before
bottling
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
Distilled spirits (gin, scotch whiskey)
Produced by the fermentation of grain mash (similar to beer but this time the
wort is not boiled), followed by distillation to increase the alcohol content
Different types of spirits are made in different ways.
Rum – fermenting sugar cane or molasses
Malt Scotch Whisky- fermentation of barleys, then age for several years in oak sherry
casks.
 Microorganism in food and
Beverage production( fermented
food)
Bread
involves growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) under aerobic
conditions
maximizes CO2 production, which leavens bread
other microbes used to make special breads (e.g., sourdough bread uses
combination of yeast and lactic acid bacteria)
can be spoiled by Bacillus species that produce ropiness
 FOOD SPOILAGE
Food spoilage encompasses any undesirable
changes in food OR Biochemical changes in
food, when perceived as unpleasant

Spoilage microorganism and their microbial

metabolites although aesthetically
disagreeable generally are not harmful.

Spoiled food are considered unsafe to eat,

however, because high numbers of spoilage
organism indicate that food borne pathogens
may be present as well.
Types of food spoilage
Three types : physical , chemical and microbial
Physical spoilage: Physical damage to the protective outer layer of
food during harvesting, processing or distribution increases the
chance of chemical or microbial spoilage.
eg. Moisture loss or gain
physical separation of components or ingredient
Chemical spoilage: when animal or vegetable material is
removed from its natural source of energy and nutrient supply,
chemical change begin to occur which lead to deterioration in its
structure.
Type of food spoilage
Eg. Two major chemical change occurs that lead to sensory
deterioration.
 Lipid oxidation (rancidity)
 Enzymic browning
•Chemical reaction is responsible for changes in the color and
flavor of food.
•Microbial spoilage: microorganism spoil food by growing in the
food and producing substances which alter color, texture and
odour of food, making it unfit for human consumption
 FOOD SPOILAGE
Common Spoilage Bacteria
Pseudomonas species can metabolize variety of compounds and they can grow
on and spoil many different kinds of foods including meats and vegetables.
Members of the genus Erwinia can produce enzymes that degrade pectin, and
so commonly cause soft rot of fruits and vegetables.
Acetobacter species can transform ethanol to acetic acid, the principal acid of
vinegar. Though beneficial is a great problem to wine producers.
 FOOD SPOILAGE
Milk products are sometimes spoiled by members of the genus Alcaligenes
that form a glycocalyx causing strings of slime or “ropiness” in raw milk.
Members of the genera Bacillus and Clostridium are particularly
troublesome because their heat – resistant endospores survive cooking and
in some cases canning.
Lactic acid bacteria including species of Streptococcus, Lactobacillus and
Leuconostoc all produce lactic acid. This give the disagreeable taste when
once consumes sour milk.
 FOOD SPOILAGE
Common Spoilage Fungi
Rhizopus, Alternaria, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Botrytis spoil food.
Fungi grow rapidly in acidic and low moisture environment hence fruits and
bread are likely to be spoiled by fungi than bacteria.
Aspergillus flavus infects peanuts and other grains, producing aflatoxin, a
potent carcinogen.
 FOOD BORNE
ILLNESS
Food borne illness, commonly referred to as food poisoning is
referred to diseases caused by ingesting food.
Microbial Food borne illness is when a pathogen or a toxin it has
produced in a food product causes diseases when consumed.
two primary types of food borne illness of microbial origin
food-borne infections
food intoxications
Food Intoxication
Food borne intoxication is an illness that results from the
consumption of an exotoxin produced by a microorganism growing
in a food product.
The absorbed toxin disrupts a particular target such as
- nervous system = neurotoxin
- Intestine = enterotoxin
The symptoms of the illness which is some cases appear within a few
hours of ingestion of the food, may indicate the type of toxin
ingested.
E.g. Staphylococcus aureus , Clostridium botulinum , Bacillus
cereus
 Staphylococcus aureus
(disease: Staphylococcal enteritis)
Many strains of Staphylococcus aureus produce a toxin that when
ingested cause nausea and vomiting.

Source of S. aureus is usually a human carrier who has not followed

adequate hygiene procedures. Eg. hand washing before preparing food.

Unlike most exotoxins which are heat - sensitive hence destroyed by

heat treatment , S. aureus is heat- stable so that cooking the food will
not destroy it.
 Staphylococcus aureus
(disease: Staphylococcal enteritis)
Summary of Events leading to S. aureus
disease:
1. Most bacteria that can compete with S. aureus are either
killed by cooking or inhibited by high salty condition
2. Food handler inoculates S. aureus onto food
3. S. aureus grows and produces toxin when food is allowed to
slowly cool or is stored at room temperature.
4. Person ingest toxin –contaminated food.
Symptoms which include nausea, abdominal cramping and
vomiting begin after 4-6hrs
 Clostridium botulinum
Disease: Botulism
Botulism is a paralytic disease caused by ingestion of a neurotoxin
produced by the anaerobic, spore-forming, Gram - positive rod
Clostridium botulinum.
Growth of the organism and production of its toxin may not cause
any noticeable change in the taste or appearance of the food.
Canning processes are specifically designed to destroy the
endospores of this organism but processing errors or post -
processing contamination can allow the germination of its
endospores and growth of vegetative cells that produce toxin
 Clostridium botulinum
Disease: Botulism
These errors are rare in commercial canned foods but occur in
home canned foods.

It is advisable to boil home canned foods for about 10- 15 mins

immediately before consumption.

This will eliminate the toxin produced since it is heat sensitive

 Clostridium botulinum
Disease: Botulism
Summary of Events leading to C. botulinum
disease:
1. C. botulinum endospores are common in soil and marine
sediments hence contaminate many different foods.
2. Endospores survive inadequate canning processes. Canned foods
are anaerobic.
3. Surviving C. botulinum endospores germinate, grow and produce
toxin in low – acid canned foods
4. Person ingest toxin –containing food
Symptoms which include weakness, double vision and progressive inability
to speak, swallow and breathe begin in 12- 36hrs
Food borne Infection

Food borne infection requires the consumption of living organism.

Symptoms which usually do not appear for at least 1 day after
consumption of the contaminated food includes diarrhea
Escherichia coli 0517:H7, Salmonella and Campylobacter species
are example.
Food borne Infection

Salmonella sp. and Campylobacter sp. (Diseases:

Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis)
They associated with poultry products eg. Chicken, turkey and eggs.
Thus inadequate cooking of this products can result in foodborne
infection.
Cross contamination to other foods can occur. ( reason why it is advice
to have chopping boards)
E.coli 0157:H7 (Escherichia enteritis)
Causes bloody diarrheal that sometimes develops into hemolytic uremic
syndrome (HUS)
 Escherichia coli 0517:H7,
Salmonella and Campylobacter
Summary of Events leading to disease
1. Incomplete cooking fails to kill all pathogens
Surviving Salmonella and/or Campylobacter can multiply as food is cooled
slowly or stored at room temperature.
Low no. of E.coli 0157:H7 surviving can cause illness.
2. Living organisms are ingested. They multiply in intestinal tract and
cause disease.
Symptoms:
Salmonella and/or Campylobacter - diarrhea, nausea and abdominal
pain
E.coli 0157:H7 –severe abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea
Food Borne Infection
 FOOD PRESERVATION
It is preventing the growth and concurrent metabolic activities of
microorganisms that cause spoilage and food borne illness
Reason for Preservation
Extension of the storage life of food
Safety
Acceptability
Nutritive value
Availability
FOOD PRESERVATION
Deterioration of food involves two processes:
1. Cells breaking down due to enzymes present in the food. This
process is know as AUTOLYSIS or Self destruct.
2. Microbial activity : the disrupted cell become vulnerable to the
activity of the microbes which may cause changes in the odor,
flavor, color and texture of food.
For effective food preservation one needs to prevent both autolysis
and microbial growth

Approach: high temperature, low temperature, reducing water

availability, addition of antimicrobial chemicals, lowing pH
 METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
1. Pasteurization
Heating food under carefully controlled conditions at high
temperatures for short periods of time to destroy non- spore forming
pathogens and reducing the number of spoilage organisms without
significantly altering flavor.
Short term method of preservation
Eg. Raw milk is heated to 720C for 15seconds.
Quality of pasteurized food: Heat sensitive nutrients are lost. Eg.
Vitamin C. No significant effect on organoleptic quality of food.
product
METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
2. Sterilization
Utilizes more severe heat process to destroy all microorganism and
most spores which may be capable of growing during storage.
Quality of sterilized food: Affects the appearance and taste of food. All
forms of heat sensitive nutrients are lost especially Vitamin C and B
3. Cooking
Destroy non- spore forming pathogens and spoilage organism.
Quality of sterilized food: Affects the appearance and taste of food. All
forms of heat sensitive nutrients are lost especially Vitamin C and B
 METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
CANNING
- Destroys all spoilage and pathogenic organisms capable of growth at
normal storage temperatures
Low – acid foods are processed using stem under pressure
(autoclaving) in order to reach temperatures high enough to destroy the
endospores for Clostridium botulinum
Acidic foods are not subjected to stringent heating conditions because
C. botulinum cannot thrive in acidic environment.
Quality of canned food: lost of heat – sensitive nutrients such as
ascorbic acid (Vit C)and thiamin (Vit B). They also change the colour,
flavour and texture of the food.
 METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
REFRIGERATION
-Preserves food by slowing the growth of microbes. Many microorganism are
unable to multiply at low temperature.
-This is a short term preservation.
FREEZING
-This stops microbial growth because water in the form of ice is unavailable for
biological reactions.
-Chemical changes in food are slowed down because of the low temperature.
-microbes will die but other may survive , grow and spoil food when food is
thawed.
Quality of frozen food: Damage of cellular structure of food product by the ice
crystal. Eg. Tomatoes frozen when thawed will become mushy due to its cell
METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
DRYING/ REDUCING WATER ACTIVITY (aW)
-Drying involves drying food in sun or advance process of which
moisture is removed by application of heat in a controlled flow of air.
This reduces available moisture in the food.
Addition of high concentration of salt or sugars also inhibits the growth
of microorganism by decreasing the available moisture.
Dehydration of microorganism by Osmosis.
Quality of these food: Drying alters cellular structure of food.
Retinal(Vit A), thiamin (Vit B), Ascorbic acid (Vit C)and vitamin E are
lost in the drying process
METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
LOWERING PH
Lowering pH by either addition of acids or by encouraging fermentation by lactic
acid bacteria, inhibits a hide range of spoilage organism and pathogens.

ADDING ANTIMICROBIAL CHEMICALS

Numerous chemicals are added to inhibit the growth of microorganism:
Organic acids such as propionic acid, benzoic acid and sorbic acid are naturally
occurring antimicrobial chemicals that are added to food to inhibit fungal growth
-Nitrates are added to cured meats to inhibit growth of C. botulinum and other
organism
- Wine, fruit juices and other products are preserved by addition of sulfur dioxide.
METHODS OF FOOD
PRESERVATION
IRRADIATION
-Gamma irradiation destroys microorganisms without significantly
altering the flavor of some foods.
It has no effects on the enzymes in food so degradation is not
prevented.
Its use is regulated. It has been approved by the Food and Drug
Administration for use in controlling insects in fruits, vegetables
and grains and in destroying pathogen such as E. Coli 0157:H7 and
Salmonella species in meats