Turbulence

MIDTERM COVERAGE
 Topic Discussions:
1. Introduction to Boundary Layers
2. Laminar Boundary Layers
3. Turbulent Boundary Layers
4. Wake Turbulence
5. Flow separation
6. Flow Transition
7. Flat plate analysis
8. Implications of Turbulent flows in wind tunnel testing
 Introduction to Boundary Layers

 In Aerodynamics, a “Boundary Layer” is defined as a region of fluid flow

adjacent to a surface where the flow is retarded by the influence of friction
between a solid surface and a fluid.
 It is a flow field that encapsulates an object in transit of a fluid medium.
 Boundary Layers are categorized based on the nature of their flow, they can be
either “Laminar” or “Turbulent”.
 A point at which a boundary layer fluid flow changes to a different one is called
the “transition point”.
 A thin region from the body towards the freestream flow where the velocity and
pressure profiles of the fluid flow are seen to be significantly different than the
freestream flow.
Introduction to Boundary Layers
Introduction to Boundary Layers
Introduction to Boundary Layers
Introduction to Boundary Layers
 Laminar Boundary Layers

 Characterized by smooth, streamlined, organized and “layered” flow patterns.

 Promotes less aerodynamic drag (induced drag)
 Less skin friction drag
 Fluid flow is uniform and less energetic, wherein molecular kinetic energy and
momentum gradually decreases
 Happens at lower Re (Reynold’s number) where viscous forces outweighs inertial
forces of the fluid, around an order of magnitude < 103
 Thinner but gradual velocity profile
 Prone to early fluid flow separation
Laminar Boundary Layers
Laminar Boundary Layers
Laminar Boundary Layers
Laminar Boundary Layers
 Turbulent Boundary Layers

 Characterized by random, disorganized vortical flow patterns (eddies), wherein instead

of being uniformly layered, as with laminar flow, it is “inter-mixing” within layers.
 Causes more aerodynamic drag (induced drag)
 More skin friction drag
 Fluid flow is chaotic and is seen to be more energetic, wherein molecular kinetic
energy and momentum is maintained due to sudden velocity fluxes caused by vortices.
 Happens at higher Re (Reynold’s number) where inertial forces overcome viscous
forces of the fluid, around an order of magnitude > 10 4
 Thicker but steeper velocity profile
 Less prone to flow separation
Turbulent Boundary Layers
Turbulent Boundary Layers
Turbulent Boundary Layers
Turbulent Boundary Layers
 Wake Turbulence

 Wake turbulence is a disturbance in the atmosphere that forms behind an aircraft as it

passes through the air. It includes various components, the most important of which
are wingtip vortices.
 Occurs when a wing is generating lift.
 The strength of wingtip vortices is determined primarily by the weight and airspeed of
the aircraft.
 Wake turbulence is especially hazardous in the region behind an aircraft in
the takeoff or landing phases of flight.
 Reducing wake turbulence would also mean the reduction of the aircraft’s induced
drag, thus improving it’s fuel efficiency.
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
 Methods of reducing wake turbulence

 Wake turbulence can be mitigated by means of adding fences or “winglets” right at the
wingtips. This prevents high pressure air from going over the top of the wing or where
the low pressure region of air resides, thus reducing the intensity of wingtip vortices,
and in turn, reduces the aircraft’s induced drag, thus improving fuel efficiency.
 Richard T. Whitcomb was among the first aerodynamicist to recognize the
effectiveness of adding a supplementary “vertical wing” near the wingtips of aircraft
wings, in order to mitigate the negative effects of wake turbulence.
 These fences or “winglets” attached to the wingtips of aircraft wings are generally
referred to as “wingtip devices” and they take various forms and consequently varying
degrees of efficiency.
Methods of reducing wake turbulence
 Methods of reducing wake turbulence

Winglet
 Methods of reducing wake turbulence

Wingtip fence
 Methods of reducing wake turbulence
Blended winglet
Methods of reducing wake turbulence

Raked wingtips
Methods of reducing wake turbulence
Winged Rotors
Methods of reducing wake turbulence
Scimitar Propellers
 Flow Separation
 Happens where adverse pressure gradients or “positive” pressure
gradient are present, or the region where a fluid flow encounters
low-to-high pressure areas.
 Occurs around a “mini-stagnation” or the transition point where
the velocity gradient is slow enough to allow recirculated air,
further downstream, to go up and over itself, causing turbulent
flow separation.
Flow Separation
Flow Separation
Flow Separation
Flow Separation
 Flow Separation
 Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer travels far enough against
an adverse pressure gradient that the speed of the boundary layer relative to
the object falls almost to zero. The fluid flow becomes detached from the
surface of the object, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices.
 Flow separation is dangerous when it occurs more towards the trailing edge
of the airfoil, especially on aircraft wings.
 A well put together aircraft wing will as much as possible delay the effects of
flow separation.
 Inhibiting flow separation far aft of an airfoil as possible would mean an
increase in the aircraft’s overall performance, especially on fuel economy due
to reduced drag, better flight control characteristics, and more importantly a
significant reduction in stall speed.
 The main contributing factor in the formation of aerodynamic drag.
Flow Separation
Flow Separation
Flow Separation
 Flow Separation

The Mythbusters conducted an experiment that compared the MPG (miles per gallon) of a
regular car versus a car that had dimples. The result was an 11% increase in the mileage per
gallon of the dimpled car compared to the regular one.
 Methods of preventing flow separation
 Vortex Generators – are small devices attached on an aircraft’s wing, usually
on the leading edge, where it trips the oncoming air to form turbulent
boundary layers, thus preventing early flow separation, and consequently
improving flight controls and reduces stall speed by a significant margin.
 Leading Edge Root Extensions (LERX) – Are triangular fillets blended
between an aircraft’s forward fuselage to its wing leading edge, used to
induce turbulent vortices along the aircraft’s length when performing high
angle of attack maneuvers, and thus prevents it from stalling.
 Boundary Layer Suction – Another way of preventing flow separation is by
mechanically sucking in air on areas of the wing prone to flow separation and
thus inhibiting potential separation due to the gradual retardation of the flow.
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation
Methods of preventing flow separation

The Northrop X-21 first investigated the concept of using boundary layer control
devices, in order to prevent flow separation therefore reducing drag and
consequently reducing fuel consumption. The aircraft facilitated two big air
compressors underneath the wing which are used to suck-in air to promote uniform
laminar flow.
 Flow Transition
 Transition is the process by which a laminar flow
becomes turbulent. In most cases, a laminar flow will
become turbulent when the Reynolds number increases
above a certain value.
 The following images are reconstructions of the
Reynolds experiment in the 1880s. Dye was injected
along the centreline of a pipe through which water
flows steadily.
 In the top image, the dye remained along the centreline,
indicating laminar ow. As Re was increased, the flow
underwent transition (middle) and eventually became
turbulent (bottom).
 Flow Transition
 Transition is a very complex process and its prediction remains a topic of intense
research. Transition may be triggered by various types of flow disturbances, which could be
due to the following causes:
o wall roughness or obstructions (boundary layer trips)
o free stream turbulence
o acoustic noise, namely, pressure fluctuations
o pressure gradient
o surface heating or cooling
o suction or blowing of fluid from the wall
o wall curvature
o compressibility
o many other sources of disturbances.
Flow Transition
Flow Transition
 Flat Plate Analysis

 Flat plate analysis on boundary layers helps us approximate

boundary layer viscous flow behaviors in a simplified and controlled
form.
 Helps us better understand how viscous flow affects certain
parameters such as drag calculation, and how to use working
boundary layer equations in engineering terms.
 Most essential in the approximation of drag computations for both
laminar and turbulent flows.
Flat Plate Analysis
Flat Plate Boundary Layer Equations
 Implications of turbulent flows in wind
tunnel testing
 It is important to understand the concept of turbulence and its impact on aerodynamic bodies.
Predicting its behavior has been the subject of intense research and development throughout
the decades.
 Understanding turbulence through wind tunnel testing has helped us aeronautical engineers
create better and more fuel efficient means of making our airplanes fly enormous distances.
 Aerodynamicists such as Richard T. Whitcomb, whose work has contributed a lot to modern
day aerodynamics, most notably his work on supercritical airfoils, the area rule, anti-shock
bodies, & the winglet, which have been widely used by modern day civilian and military
planes alike.
 In conducting wind tunnel tests itself, it is essential that we understand where turbulent flows
will normally occur and the appropriate measures to reduce or as much as possible cancel out
turbulent flows inside the wind tunnel, especially inside the test section, where important data-
gathering is conducted.