Designing Social Research Session 7 Summer 2022

Designing Social
Research/Evidence Based
Practice
Session 7: Data Analysis &
Trustworthiness of Qualitative
Research
Jack Frost
derby.ac.uk
Sensitivity: Internal
Quantitative
and In pairs discuss your understanding of the terms
`quantitative` and `qualitative` research. What do
Qualitative
you feel are the major differences in these two
approaches to educational enquiry?
Research
Quantitative Quantitative research is a formal, objective,
systematic process in which numerical data are used
Research to make claims about the world.
Data types summary:
Categorical
Qualitative Data
Increasingly numerical
Nominal
Binary Ordinal
Interval Scale
Quantitative
Data
Ratio
https://www.mymarketresearchmethods.com/types-of-data-no
minal-ordinal-interval-ratio/
Types of Qualitative Data Analysis
• Thematic Analysis Thematic Analysis Braun et al PART 1 YOUTUBE VIDEO – YouTube
• Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
• Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
http://med-fom-familymed-research.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2012/03/IPA_Smith_Osborne21632.pdf
• Narrative Analysis
• Visual Analysis e. g Autophotography.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ805685.pdf
Thematic Analysis
( Six PHASES – Braun
and Clarke, 2006)
• Phase One: Familiarizing yourself

with your data – repeated
reading, reading in active way
(searching for meaning)
• Time consuming.
• Take notes.
• Transcription
Phase Two • Codes identify a feature of the data (this is part of
the analysis)
–
Generating
• Data driven V Theory Driven
Initial • Highlighting, post it notes
Codes • All data extracts coded and then collated within

each code.
• https://www.predictiveanalyticstoday.com/top-fre
e-qualitative-data-analysis-software/
Phase • Refocusing at a broader level.
Three: • Thematic Maps

Searching
• Main Overarching Themes, Sub Themes
for Themes.
• Realise that some candidate themes are not
themes (i.e. not supported by enough data).
• Other themes might collapse into each other.
Phase Four: • Themes might be broken down into separate

Reviewing themes.
Themes Two Sub Stages: Stage one – Read all collated data
extracts for each theme. If OK then move onto Stage
Two – Reread entire data set: this ensures that the
themes are fit for purpose and also allows you
opportunities to add uncoded data into collated data
for themes.
• Refine and define.
Phase Five:
• Process – Organise the data extracts for each
Defining and theme into an organised account with
Naming Themes accompanying narrative.
(Findings/Results • You will begin to look at themes in relation to one

in your another. Make decisions about the need for sub
themes.
Independent
Study) • At the end of this phase you need to be sure what
the themes are.
Phase Six:
Producing the • Convincing your reader of the validity of your
analysis.
Report
(Discussion of • The analysis (including data extracts) provides
coherent, logical, non-repetitive and interesting
Findings in story of the data i.e. enough data extracts to

demonstrate prevalence of the theme.
your • Your analytical narrative needs to be linked to your

Independent research question(s).
Study)
• Failure to analyse the data
Pitfalls to • Using data collection questions as themes.

• Weak or unconvincing analysis – not enough data
Avoid extracts to substantiate the theme, too many

overlapping themes,
• Data extracts contradict themes
Good
Thematic
Analysis
Advantages
of
Thematic
Analysis
After finding your
themes, how might you
present your findings
Re-state research objectives for the

research.
Identify what you will do in this
chapter.
•Fig 1 – List of codes identified within transcription of
Presentation interviews
of findings: •Ensure you inform the reader that the codes can be
Interview observed in the transcription in appendix Z
Fig 2 Initial thematic map
showing five main themes
extracted from coding
-
Fig 3 -Developed
thematic map showing
three main themes
POWERLESSNESS
This theme encapsulates each of the participants’ struggle to deal with the exasperation they have experienced at work: a combination of feelings encompassing
disappointment, offence, vulnerability and enragement resulted in frustration.
In the beginning of the interview, it was not easy for Anne and Liz to explicitly express their experiences. Later on, perhaps when they became more comfortable with
the interview process, they were more capable of talking openly about their experiences. Anne experienced emotions of being embarrassed and enraged:
“Mad, angry and my dignity, it seems, being manipulated. I felt inferiority and so humiliated when . . .”
For Anne, being emotionally affected prevented her letting go of her hatred against the perpetrator. The situation made her hold a grudge against him when she
mentioned:
“When I saw him I felt that I can’t forgive him for what he has been saying about me.”
Liz explained that she has a sense of guilt because she unwillingly let the perpetrator have physical contact with her. The feelings of being fearful and isolated,
expressed by Liz in the following excerpt, show that she does not like being treated disrespectfully:
“Infuriated . . . I felt really mad but I don’t know what to do . . . I don’t want to be treated like this.”
This made Liz consider leaving her job:
“If we are normal we feel stress, and sometimes I feel like I want to quit.”
In addition, Betty fears that nothing will change in this regard:
Discussion of Findings
Explain what you will do in this chapter.
Key Point
Nb. When discussing the themes ensure you link to literature (found in your lit review – if
its not there then retro-actively put it in Lit Review section). In your discussion its good to
use varied lit sources that have tensions in what they are saying. If possible use empirical
research findings to support what you are saying….also link to theory where possible.
Critical Discourse
Analysis
“discourse is an inescapably important
concept for understanding society and
human responses to it, as well as for
understanding language itself”
Jaworski and Coupland (1999:3)
• By performing a CDA, “we can unlock
the ideologies and recover the social
meanings expressed in discourse”
(Teo 2000: 11)
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) views language as a
form of social practice and focuses upon investigating
Seminal how societal power relations are established and
reinforced through language use.
Author
Norman Fairclough (1995).
“CDA gives attention to the dynamic interplay between text production, the text itself, and
text interpretation or consumption.”
(Coffin, 2001: 99)
Faircloughs Internal Relations
2003 CDA Actions - Interrogative, declarative,
Framework persuasive or implicative

Representations – descriptions of
people, places or actions
(Two Main Identification – overall intent of the
text
Structures
in
External Relations
Social Events, Social Practices, Social Structures
Discourse)
External Relations
• Social Event – (With respect to discourse e.g. newspaper article, debate, poster )
• Social Practices – (Actions taken in social situations – teaching, arguing, discussing,

writing a newspaper article)
• Social Structures – (Structures that guide discourse – democracy, Catholicism)
Read the two articles in appendix 1 & 2 and in pairs unpack the text
using the internal and external relations outlined by Fairclough
South Korea buries 1.4m pigs ALIVE in bid to eradicate foot and mouth disease
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-artslaw/cels/essays/writtendiscourse/DifferingOpinionsSThompson.pdf
Is your qualitative work TRUSTWORTHY?
Trustworthiness
Procedural Rigour – appropriate and precise data collection techniques. Incorporation of a
reflective/critical component in order to reduce bias.
Ethical Rigour – how are confidentiality issues and the rights of participants dealt with
during the research.
Credibility
The confidence that can be placed in the truth of the research findings
Is there consistency between the participants` views and the researchers representation?
“Credibility establishes whether or not the research findings represent plausible

information drawn from the participants’ original data and is a correct interpretation of the
participants’ original views.”
(Graneheim
&Lundman, 2004)
Credibility Strategies:
• Longitudinal research
• Time sampling
• Triangulation
• Peer examination
• Member Checks
Transferability:
Degree to which results of the research can be transferred to other contexts
Transferability Strategies:
Thick Description
“enables judgments about how well the research context fits other contexts, thick descriptive data,
i.e. a rich and extensive set of details concerning methodology and context, should be included in
the research report”
(Li, 2004:305)
“without this insight [thick description], it is difficult for the reader of the final account to determine
the extent to which the overall findings “ring true”
(Shenton,2004:69)
Dependability (auditability)
A study might be deemed dependable when another researcher is able to follow design
decisions described by the investigator and potentially arrive at the same or comparable
conclusions.
Strategy – evidence of decision trail at each stage of the research process.
Need to discuss reasons for such decisions.
Koch(2006)
Confirmability
Demonstration of how conclusions and interpretations have been reached.
Concerned with establishing that findings are clearly derived from data
(Tobin and
Begley,2004)
Strategy – Achieve credibility, transferability and dependability
References
Graneheim, U. H., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts,
procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24(2), 105- 112. doi:
10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001
Tobin,G. and Begley, C.(2004) Methodological Rigour within a qualitative framework, J Adv Nurs,
48(4): 388 -96
Li, D. (2004). Trustworthiness of think-aloud protocols in the study of translation processes.

International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 14(3), 301-313. doi: 10.1111/j.1473-4192.2004.00067.x
Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects.

Education for Information, 22(2004), 63-75.

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Designing Social

• Phase One: Familiarizing yourself

Initial • Highlighting, post it notes

Codes • All data extracts coded and then collated within

Three: • Thematic Maps

• Other themes might collapse into each other.

Phase Four: • Themes might be broken down into separate

(Findings/Results • You will begin to look at themes in relation to one

Findings in story of the data i.e. enough data extracts to

your • Your analytical narrative needs to be linked to your

Pitfalls to • Using data collection questions as themes.

Avoid extracts to substantiate the theme, too many

Re-state research objectives for the

Jaworski and Coupland (1999:3)

2003 CDA Actions - Interrogative, declarative,

Framework persuasive or implicative

• Social Practices – (Actions taken in social situations – teaching, arguing, discussing,

• Social Structures – (Structures that guide discourse – democracy, Catholicism)

“Credibility establishes whether or not the research findings represent plausible

Strategy – evidence of decision trail at each stage of the research process.

Need to discuss reasons for such decisions.

Strategy – Achieve credibility, transferability and dependability

Li, D. (2004). Trustworthiness of think-aloud protocols in the study of translation processes.

Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects.

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