MODULE II

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 SYLLABUS
• Surveying: Importance, objectives and principles.
• Construction materials, Conventional construction
materials: types, properties and uses of building materials:
bricks, stones, cement, sand and timber
• Cement concrete: - Constituent materials, properties and
types. Steel:- Steel sections and steel reinforcements, types
and uses.
• Modern construction materials:- Architectural glass,
ceramics, Plastics, composite materials, thermal and
acoustic insulating materials, decorative panels,
waterproofing materials. Modern uses of gypsum, pre-
fabricated building components (brief discussion only).
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 SURVEYING

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 DEFINITION

Surveying is art of determining the relative

positions of points on above or beneath the
surface of the earth by direct or indirect
measurements of distances, directions and
elevations

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 Objectives

 Preparation of archaeological, geological and military

maps
 Establishment of boundaries of properties with
reference to the available records
 Measurement of quantities in cutting and embankment
using contours

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 Plotting of profiles for finding capacity of reservoir,
canals etc
 Measurement of distances between two points
 Determination of relative positions of points
 Layout of alignment of engineering structures
 Applications in GIS {Geographic Information System}

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 Classification of Surveying
 Primary Classification
 Plane surveying

 Geodetic surveying (Trigonometric surveying)

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Shape of surface of earth is spherical.
 Classification based on object of survey
1. Engineering surveys
– conducted for collecting data for design and planning of
engineering works
– Buildings, reservoirs, dams, airports etc...

2. Mine surveys
– To explore the mineral wealth
– Conducted underground as well as surface surveys.

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3. Geological surveys
– To determine the different features of soil strata
– To prepare geological maps

4. Archaeological surveys
– To trace the customs or relics of the past civilization
5. Military surveys
– To prepare and determine the points of strategic importance
– Preparing maps of areas of military importance

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 Classification based on instruments used
1. Chain surveying
– Measuring chain and tape are used to take linear
measurements.
– No angular measurements are taken in this
– When high accuracy is not required

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 Chain Surveying

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2. Compass surveying

– Horizontal angles are measured by magnetic compass in

addition to linear measurements

– When area cannot be divided into triangles

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 Compass Surveying

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 Compass Surveying

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3. Plane table surveying
– Consists of drawing board mounted on a tripod and a straight

edge called alidade.

– Plotting can be done simultaneously in the field.

– It is rapid, less expensive and most suitable for preparing

small scale maps.

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 Principles
The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is
being carried out are:
 Working from whole to part
 Fixing a point with reference to other two points

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 Working from whole to part

– The whole area is first enclosed by main stations (controlling

stations) & main survey lines with higher precision
– Later inner control points are established in between those

primary points.

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•First main controlling stations are established and main survey line
•Area is then divided into a number of parts

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  The purpose of this process of working is to prevent
accumulation of error and to control and localize minor
errors
 Otherwise error would expand to greater magnitude if the
reverse process is followed

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 Fixing a point with reference to other two points
• The relative position of a point can be fixed with reference to
two other points of reference, by means of linear and angular
measurements.

Let Z & Y be the reference points on the ground. Other point X

can be located by any of the following direct methods

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 Distances YX and ZX

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 Distances OX and OY / OZ

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 Distance ZX or YX & angle YZX / ZYX

Distance ZX & angle YZX Distance ZX & angle

ZYX

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 Angles ZYX & YZX

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BUILDING MATERIALS

Building material means any material which is used for a

construction purpose.

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BUILDING MATERIALS
Natural materials :
• Natural masonry material such
as
– clay, rocks and sand
– Timber and wood products
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Artificial materials:
• Ceramic materials and products
• Organic binders and Inorganic
binders
• Concrete and mortars
• Metals
• Heat insulating materials
• Glass
• Water proofing materials
• Polymer building materials- floor
covering
• Varnishes and paints
bricks
• Oldest manufactured building material and Leading material due to its
• Durability
• Strength
• Reliability

• Low cost

• Light weight
• Thermal insulating property
• Easy availability

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 Composition of good brick earth
• Alumina – 20 to 30%
 Imparts plasticity
 If in excess – shrinks &warp during drying and burning

• Silica – 50 to 60%
 Imparts uniform shape by preventing warping and
shrinkage
 If in excess – makes the brick brittle

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• Oxides of iron – 5 to 6%
 imparts red colour
 Act as a flux to cause the grain of sand to melt & to bind the
particle together.
 In excess – makes the brick dark blue
• Lime – not exceeding 5%
 prevent shrinkage

 If excess – causes the brick to melt & its shape is lost

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• Magnesia – < 2 %
 impart yellow tint

 decrease shrinkage

In excess – leads to decay of bricks

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 Dimensions of standard brick

• Standard size (BIS) : 190mmx 90mmx 90mm

• Nominal size : 200mmx100mmx100mm
( incl. mortar thickness)
• Weight of 1m3 of brick earth : 18 kN
• Average weight of brick : 30 –35 N

Uses of brick
• Walls
• Paving & Road work
• Foundation
• Ornamental works
• Bridges & dams
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 Manufacture of bricks
• Preparation of brick earth

•Moulding

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• Drying

rotary kiln,

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•Burning
 Clamp burning
 Kiln burning

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 Tests on bricks
• Compressive strength
• Water absorption test
• Hardness
• Shape size
• Test for presence of soluble salts
• Soundness test
• Toughness test
• Structure
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Compressive strength test (Crushing Strength)
• Brick place on compressive testing machine
• Load applied till brick breaks at uniform rate of 14N/mm 2

• Minimum compressive strength should be 3.5 N/mm 2

Maximum load
Crushing Strength =
Area of
bearing face

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 Water absorption test
•To find out amount of water absorbed by the brick
•Weight of the dry brick w1 is noted
•Immersed in water for 24hrs
•Taken out and weighed : w2
•% of water absorption =[ (w2 – w1)/ w1 ] x 100
•Permissible value : 20%- 25 % ( depending upon the class of brick)

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 Hardness
• Scratch is made on the brick with fingernail
• No impression is left - brick is sufficiently hard

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 Shape and size
20 bricks – 19 x 9 x 9 cm – selected randomly
• Stacked lengthwise along width and height
• Total dimensions

– Length :3680mm to 3920mm

– Breadth :1740mm to 1860mm
– Height :1740mm to 1860mm

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 Test for Efflorescence
• Immersed in water for 24 hours

• Taken out and dried under shade

• Thin layer of white or grey found on surface –

soluble salts like Sodium sulphate, Potassium
sulphate are present.

• Area of coverage of the white patches are noted

– 10% slight efflorescence

– 50% moderate efflorescence

– >50% heavy efflorescence

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 Soundness test
• Two bricks – knocked against each other
• Should not break
• Give a metallic ringing sound

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 Toughness test
• Dropped flat from a height of 1m

• Does not break - tough

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 Structure
• Brick is broken

• Should be homogeneous, compact and free from holes,

lumps etc.

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 Qualities/Requirements of good bricks

1. Should have uniform copper colour

2. Should be free from cracks, grit and voids

3. Even surfaces with sharp & square edges

4. Should be of standard size

5. Should show a bright homogeneous structure

6. When scratched with finger nail, should not leave

impression

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 7. Should give clear ringing sound when struck with
each other

8. Water absorption not more than 20%

9. Should not break when dropped flat on a hard
ground from a height of 1m

10.Sound proof and low thermal conductivity

11.Crushing strength not less than 3.5 N/mm2

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 Classification of Bricks

Bricks

Unburned/ Sun dried

bricks
Burnt bricks

First Second Third Fourth

For Temporary Class Class Class Class
structures

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 First class bricks
•Well burnt bricks -Superior quality works
•Perfect rectangular shape, with well defined edges
•Uniform colour, free from lumps
•Water absorption not more than 20% after immersing in water for 24hrs
•Should give clear ringing sound
•Should not leave a mark when scratched with finger nail
•No efflorescence
•Broken faces should have compact structure
•Minimum compressive strength – 10.5 N/mm2
•Used for:
 load bearing walls without plastering but only pointing
 paving
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and flooring
 Second class bricks
•Either well burnt or slightly over burnt
•Slight irregularities in shape, size, colour
•Water absorption not more than 22% after immersing in water for 24hrs
•Emit ringing sound when stuck against each other
•Minimum compressive strength – 7N/mm2
•Only slight efflorescence
•Used for :
 load bearing walls in a single storied building,
 Masonry walls with plastering

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 Third class bricks
•Half burnt or unburnt bricks
•Non uniform reddish colour
•Irregularity in texture,shape and size
•Produce dull sound when stuck against each other
•Water absorption not more than 25% after immersing in water for 24hrs
•Intensive sign of Efflorescence
•Minimum compressive strength – 3.5 N/mm2
•Used for unimportant and temporary works like:
 huts and sheds
 Boundary walls

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 Fourth class bricks
•Overburnt bricks
•Dark in colour
•Irregular size and shape
•Used as aggregates for concrete
•Not used for normal engineering works

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Uses of bricks

• Bricks are used for the construction of walls,

foundations of structure
• Used in construction of bridges and dams
• Used for paving and road works
• Bricks are used for ornamental works

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Special types of bricks
Hollow brick Perforated brick
•Light in weight •Light weight
•Has hollow spaces •less material required
•Thickness about 20-25mm •Thermal comfort

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Special types of bricks
Cownose brick Bullnose brick
•Corners of brick pillars •any of the four vertical
short edges rounded

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Special types of bricks
Paving brick Hollow block brick
•clay with higher % of iron •Wall construction
•Resist abrasion •Light weight

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 Refractory bricks
Special types of bricks •Resist high temperatures
Sand lime bricks without melting or softening
Sand – 88% •Lining of furnaces, chimneys,
Lime – 8 to 12% kilns etc
Pigment – 0.2 to 3%
Hard and strong

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 STONES
• Classification
• Qualities of a good building stone
• Uses of a good building stone

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 Classification of rocks
Geological classification
Physical Classification
Chemical Classification

1. Geological Classification
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
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 Igneous Rocks

 Inside portion of earth surface has high temperature

 Molten material present inside the earth surface is known
as magma.
 Magma may come out to the earths surface through weak
portions and cracks.
 Rocks formed by the cooling of magma are called igneous
rocks.

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 a)Plutonic Rocks
-Cooling of magma at considerable depth
-Coarsely grained crystalline structure

b) Hypabyssal rocks
-Cooling of magma at shallow depth
-Cooling is quick
-Finely grained crystalline structure

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DOLERITE
 c) Volcanic Rocks
Pouring of magma to earths surface
Cooling is very rapid (compared to other two methods)
Fine grained in structure

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 Sedimentary Rocks

 Deposits of products of weathering on pre-existing rocks.

 Carried away from places of origin by agents of transport -Rain,
Wind, Flowing Water
• Residual Deposits – Remain at the site of origin.
• Sedimentary deposits – Insoluble products are carried away in
suspension and will get deposited
• Chemical deposits – Deposited due to physio-chemical
process like evaporation, Precipitation
• Organic deposits – By the agency of organisms
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 Gravel
Sandstone

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 Metamorphic Rocks

• Change in character of previous rocks

• Igneous and sedimentary rocks are changed in character due to
heat and temperature
• Process of change is metamorphism
• Agents of metamorphism
Heat, Pressure and chemically acting fluid

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 1.Thermal metamorphism – Heat is the predominant factor
2.Cataclastic metamorphism – Pressure
3.Dynamo- Thermal – Heat and stress

Granite changes to Gneisses, Lime stone to

Marble and Shale to slate.

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 2. Physical Classification

Based on structure of rocks

a) Stratified rocks- Plane of stratification or cleavage and can be

split along those planes

Sandstone

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b) Unstratified rocks
•Crytalline or granular structure (Igneous rocks)
•similar kind of structure throughout their whole body

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c) Foliated rocks –
• Tendency to be split up in definite direction
•layered or banded structure which is obtained by exposure of
pressure and heat
•gneiss, schist, slate etc.

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 3. Chemical Classification

Scientific and engineering classification

1.Silicious rocks
• Silica predominates
• Hard and durable
• Not easily affected by weathering agencies
• eg: Granite and Quartzites

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 2. Argillaceous rocks
• Argil/ Clay Predominates
• Hard and durable but brittle
• eg: Slates and laterites

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3. Calcareous rocks
• Calcium carbonate predominates
• Durability depends on constituents present in the atmosphere
• eg: limestones and marbles

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 Tests on stones
The building stones are to be tested for their various
properties:
i. Crushing strength test
ii. Acid test
iii. Abrasion test
iv. Water absorption test
v. Toughness test
vi. Transverse shear strength
vii. Tensile strength
viii. Shear strength
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 Crushing strength test
• To find out the compressive strength of stones
• IS 1211: Part1
• Cubes od 40mm x40mm x 40 mm or cylinders are
be used for the testing
• Specimens are immersed in water maintained at 20-
30 0C for 72 hours and shall be tested in saturated
condition
• Load is applied at the rate of loading of 14N/mm2 per
minute

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 Crushing strength test
• The crushing load is noted
• Crushing strength is given by,
Crushing load

Area of the bearing face

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 Acid test
• Usually carried out on sandstones to find the presence
of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
• Stone sample (weighing 50-100g) is placed in 1N HCl
solution for 7 days
• Solution is agitated at intervals
• A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and
keeps its surface free from powder at the end of this
period
• If the edges are broken and powder is formed on the
surface, it indicates the presence of CaCO3

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 Abrasion test
• Test carried out to check the suitability of stone
aggregates for road work
• Various tests are available:
– Los Angeles abrasion test
– Deval abrasion test
– Dorry’s abrasion test
Los Angeles test gives better results

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 Los Angeles abrasion test
• Los Angeles Machine:
Consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both
the ends with an internal diameter of 700 mm and
length 500 mm and capable of rotating about its
horizontal axis
• Abrasive charge:
Cast iron or steel balls, ~ 48mm in diameter and
each weighing between 390 to 445g; six to twelve
balls are required.
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 • 5 kg of sample is taken
• Depending on the grade of soil, no. of cast
iron balls are decided and placed in the
cylinder
• Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 – 33
revolutions per minute.
• When required revolutions have reached
(500-1000) depending on the specimen, it is
taken out and sieved on 1.7mm IS sieve

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• Los Angeles value is obtained as,
= x100

For road works,

For bituminous mix- 30%
For base course- 50%

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 Water absorption test
• Cube specimen weighing 50 g is prepared
• Dry weight is noted as w1
• Place the specimen in water for 24 hours
• Wipe out the water and weigh it as w2
• Suspend the specimen freely in water and
weigh w3
• Calculate % absorption as:
• % absorption by weight = x 100
• % absorption by volume= x 100
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 Impact test
• To determine the resistance of stones to
impact loads

• Consist of a frame with guides in

which a hammer weighing

13.5 to 15kg can fall from a height of

380mm
• Aggregates of size 10-12mm are filled
in cylindrical cup in 3 layers (tamped
25 times with 16mm dia steel rod)
(w1)
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• Cup is kept under the testing machine and again tamped
25 times
• The hammer is allowed to fall freely on the sample 15
times
• Then the sample is sieved through 2.36 mm sieve (w2)
• Impact value =
• Recommended values :
• For wearing course ≤ 30%
• For bituminous macheadam ≤ 35%
• For water bound macheadam ≤ 40%

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 Transverse Strength Test

 Samples shall be blocks of 20x5x5

cm
 Test piece is supported upon two self
bearing bearers
 Load is applied through a third
bearer centrally at a rate of
200kg/min
 Load at the time of breaking is the
transverse strength

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 Tensile strength

Cylindrical specimen drilled from the sample

Diameter shall not be less than 50mm
Each specimen is sandwiched in between two steel
plates.
Load is applied continuously at a uniform rate of 200
N/sec until the specimen splits

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 Qualities of a good building stone
1. Crushing strength 12. Toughness index
2. Appearance 13. Water absorption
3. Durability 14. Weathering
4. Facility of dressing
5. Fracture
6. Hardness
7. Percentage wear
8. Resistance to fire
9. Seasoning
10. Specific Gravity
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 Qualities of a good building stone
1.Crushing strength – should be more than 100 N/mm2
2.Appearance – Those used for face work should be decent in
appearance and should be capable of preserving their colour
uniformly for a long time.
- Should be of uniform colour.
3. Durability – a) alternate conditions of heat and cold.
b) alternate conditions of wetness and dryness.
c) chemical agents like dissolved gases.
d) growth of trees and creepers in the joints between stones.
e) wind with high velocity.
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 Qualities of a good building stone
4. Facility of dressing – should be easily carved, moulded, cut and
dressed (economical) opposite to strength, durability and
hardness.
5. Fracture – a) its fracture should be sharp, even, bright and clear
b) grains should be well cemented together
6. Resistance to wear – mineral composing should be such that
shape of the stone is preserved

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 Qualities of a good building stone
7. Hardness – a) coefficient of hardness >17  can be used for road
works
b) if coefficient of hardness  14 to 17  medium hardness
c) if coefficient of hardness  <14  poor hardness 
should not be used for road works
8. Percentage wear – a) if wear is more than 3%  not satisfactory
b) =3%  tolerable quality
c) < 3%  good building stone

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 Qualities of a good building stone

9. Seasoning – a) stones should be well seasoned or properly dried

before using for structural works
b) stones fresh from quarry  some moisture known as
quarry sap – makes stones soft and easy for carving, dressing etc.
c) sufficient period for proper seasoning  6 – 12 months
10. Specific Gravity  should be greater than 2.7
for dams, weirs, retaining wall, docks  heavy stones (higher Sp.
Gr)
for domes, roof covering  lighter stones

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 Uses of Building Stones
• the ornamental and architectural beauty of
different types of structures
• Construction of walls, bridge piers
• Floor covering
• Masonry work
• Road construction
• As aggregates in concrete
• Retaining walls
• Dams
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