CELL STRUCTURE AND

LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
 CONTENT

1.Cell structure and organization

*Plant and animal cell structures
*Function of the structures
2. Levels of organization
*Specialized cells and their functions
*Definitions and examples of tissues, organs and systems
3. Size of specimens
*Calculation of magnification and size using millimeters
*Calculation of magnification using micrometers
Cell Structures: Basics
Cytoplasm is found inside the cell and contains all the other cell
structures

The large nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane to separate

it from the cytoplasm

The cell membrane surrounds the cell

The cell wall is made of cellulose and surrounds the cell membrane
in plant cells

Chloroplasts are organelles found in the cytoplasm that are packed

with the pigment chlorophyll and so are green in colour

Vacuoles are large vesicles that take up a large part of the interior of
plant cells
 CELL STRUCTURES

All cells are made up of intracellular

structures that carry out specific
functions within the cell. These
structures are commonly known as
organelles. Some common structures
are listed in the table below
The endoplasmic reticulum
can either be smooth or rough,
and in general its function
is to produce proteins for the
rest of the cell to function.
The rough endoplasmic
reticulum has on it ribosomes,
which are small, round
organelles whose function it is
to make those proteins
CELL MEMBRANE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
Specialised Animal Cells

Adaptations of Specialised Cells in Animals

Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order
to perform particular functions. These differences are controlled by genes in the
nucleus
Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: this is a process by which cells
develop the structure and characteristics needed to be able to carry out their
functions
C

CILLIATED CELL
 CELLS WITH SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Some cells have specific functions other than metabolic reactions.

Theses cells need different adaptations to carry out their functions. Example of some of such
cells include:
1. Red Blood Cells
*They contain hemoglobin. A red pigment that binds with oxygen when blood flows through
the lungs
*They do not have nucleus as such more space is made for hemoglobin to bind oxygen
Levels of
Organisation
 Magnification
Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes
easy when you remember the triangle - whatever you are trying to find, place
your finger over it and whatever is left is what you do, so:
Magnification = image size / actual size
Actual size = image size / magnification
Image size = magnification x actual size
Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘x 10’
or ‘x 5000’
Let’s look at an example:
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a
factor of x 3000. What is the actual size of the cell?
To find the actual size of the cell:
Calculating Magnification & Specimen Size
Using millimetres and micrometres as units:
The table below shows how millimetres are related to two other
measures of length
 What this basically means is that 1mm = 1000µm and 1cm =
10,000µm
This usually comes up in questions where you have two different
units and you need to ensure that you convert them both into the same
unit before proceeding with the calculation
For example:
Example extended magnification question
Remember 1mm = 1000µm
2000 / 1000 = 2 so the actual thickness of the
leaf is 2mm and the drawing thickness is 50mm
Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2
= 25
So the magnification is x 25 (NO UNITS)
CALCULATING MAGNIFICATION
•The same unit of measurement should be
used when making the calculation - metre
(m), millimetre (mm) or micrometre (µm).
•To convert millimetres into micrometres,
multiply by 1000.
•1mm = 1000µm
CALCULATING MAGNIFICATION
• The below equation can be rearranged in order to
calculate the actual length of the cell and the
magnification used as well as the length of the image.
• Actual Length = length of the Image divided by
the Magnification.

• Magnification = length of the Image divided by the Actual

Length.
SCALE BAR
Magnification can be calculated
using a scale bar. This is a line
drawn near the photograph or
drawing which has a label
showing the actual length of the
bar before being magnified.
Working out magnification:
1. Measure the scale bar image (beside
drawing) in mm.
2. Convert to µm (multiply by 1000).
3. Magnification = scale bar image divided by
actual scale bar length (written on the scale
bar).
EXAMPLES OF
MICROSCOPES
EXAMPLES OF
MICROSCOPES
1 The diagram shows an onion plant epidermal cell.
The distance between X and Y on the diagram is 60 mm.

The actual length of the cell between X and Y was 150 µm.

What is the magnification of the cell?

A ×40 B ×250 C ×400 D ×2500
2 The diagram shows a human liver cell.

The length of structure M on the diagram is 6 mm.

The magnification of the diagram is x 2000.
What is the actual length of M?
A 0.03 µm B 3 µm C 333 µm D 12 000 mm
3 Which features do animal cells share with plant
cells?
5 The diagram shows a single cell from an organism called
Spirogyra.

Which features does Spirogyra share with plant cells?