Chapter - 2 (Lecture - 1)

Debre Berhan University
Institute of Technology
College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
Course Name : Basic Environmental Engineering

Course code:ChEg3161
Lecturer :Befkadu A.
Email : befkaduayalkie@gmail.com
Phone No:+251925243866
1
2014 EC.
DBU Department of Chemical Engineering
Chapter - Two
Water and Water Treatment
Basic Environmental Engineering 2

Lecture one
o Water cycle o Uses of water

o Water resources o Threats to fresh water
o Distribution of water resources
resources on the earth o Risk of water insecurity
o Distribution of fresh water o Water quality parameters
in Ethiopia o Water quality requirements
o Source of water in Ethiopia

Water cycle (hydrologic cycle)

• Water is continually moving around the Earth and continuously
changing its physical form.
• Water needs to be replenished, purified and circulated again and again

so that it can perform its functions. Nature does this job through a
process called the water cycle.
• Also known as hydrologic cycle, the water cycle is a phenomenon

where water moves through the three phases (gas, liquid and solid)
over the four spheres (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere) and completes a full cycle.
• The water cycle has many effects:
• It regulates the temperature of the surroundings.
• It changes weather and creates rain.
• It helps in conversion of rocks to soil.
• It circulates important minerals through the spheres.
• It also creates the many geographical features present on earth.
• Hence it is quite important to understand and learn the processes of

the water cycle.


Evaporation
It is a process where water at the surface turns into water vapors.
Water absorbs heat energy from the sun and turns into vapors.
Water bodies like the oceans, the seas, the lakes and the river
bodies are the main source of evaporation.
Through evaporation, water moves from hydrosphere to
atmosphere.

Condensation
 As water vaporizes into water vapor, it rises up in the atmosphere.
 At high altitudes the water vapors changes into very tiny particles
of ice /water droplets because of low temperature. This process is
called condensation.
 These particles come close together and form clouds and fogs in
the sky.

Sublimation
Apart from evaporation, sublimation also contributes to water
vapors in the air.
Sublimation is a process where ice directly converts into water
vapors without converting into liquid water.
The main sources of water from sublimation are the ice sheets.
Sublimation is a rather slower process than evaporation.

Precipitation
The clouds (condensed water vapors) then pour down as precipitation due to
wind or temperature change.
This occurs because the water droplets combine to make bigger droplets. Also
when the air cannot hold any more water, it precipitates.
 At high altitudes the temperature is low and hence the droplets lose their heat
energy. These water droplets fall down as rain. If the temperature is very low
(below 0 degrees), then the water droplets would fall as snow. In addition, water
could also precipices in the form of drizzle, sleet and hail. Hence water enters
lithosphere.

Transpiration
As water precipitates, some of it is absorbed by the soil. This water
enters into the process of transpiration.
Transpiration is a process similar to evaporation where liquid
water is turned into water vapor by the plants. The roots of the
plants absorb the water and push it toward leaves where it is used
for photosynthesis.
The extra water is moved out of leaves through stomata (very tiny
openings on leaves) as water vapor. Thus water enters the
biosphere and exits into gaseous phase.
Runoff
As the water pours down (in whatever form), it leads to runoff.
Runoff is the process where water runs over the surface of earth.
When the snow melts into water it also leads to runoff.
As water runs over the ground it displaces the top soil with it and
moves the minerals along with the stream.
This runoff combines to form channels, rivers and ends up into
lakes, seas and oceans. Here the water enters hydrosphere.

Infiltration
Some of the water that precipitates does not runoff into the rivers
and is absorbed by the plants or gets evaporated. It moves deep into
the soil. This is called infiltration.
The water seeps down and increases the level of ground water
table.
It is called pure water and is drinkable.
The infiltration is measured as inches of water-soaked by the soil

per hour.

Water resources
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially
useful as a source of water supply.
About two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with water.
 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent
is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers
and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found
mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above
ground or in the air.

Fresh water is water with a dissolved salt concentration

of less than 1%
Natural sources of fresh water include surface water,
under river flow, groundwater and frozen water.
Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated
wastewater (reclaimed water) and desalinated seawater.

Distribution of water resources on the earth
 Saline water in oceans accounts for about 97.4% of total water on earth.
 Fresh water accounts for 2.6% of which ice caps and glaciers hold
76.3% (2.14% of total water)
 Groundwater: 0.60% (accounts for > 98% of unfrozen fresh water)
 Soil moisture .005%
 Fresh-water lakes .007%
 Rivers 0.0001%.
Distribution of fresh water in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, there are 12 major river

basins/valleys, 11 lakes, 9 saline
lakes, 4 crater lakes and more than
12 major swamps.
The average annual flow of water

from all the 12 river basins is
estimated to be 123.25 billion m3 .
Several of the major rivers cross to

neighboring countries. For example,
the Abbay River flows to Sudan and Map of Ethiopia showing main river basins.
Egypt, and the Omo to Kenya.

• It has been estimated that 95% of Ethiopia’s annual run-off flows out
of the country in these cross-boundary rivers
• In Ethiopia, it is estimated that 54.4 billion m3 of surface run-off and

2.6 billion m3 of groundwater could be developed for use by people.
Some areas have sufficient water, while others don’t have enough.
Most permanent springs and streams exist only in the highlands in the
west of the country.
• In areas below 1500 m above sea level, which is more than 55% of
the country, there is hardly any surface run-off and very few
permanent springs and streams.
Figure shows maps of rainfall and groundwater availability during drought in Ethiopia.

Sources of water in Ethiopia
• Our main sources of water for
drinking, washing, agriculture and
industry are
• surface water,
• groundwater and
Many people rely on lakes and rivers
• collected rainwater for their water supply
• Surface water: Rivers, streams,
lakes, and ponds are widely used as
water sources in Ethiopia,
especially in rural areas
Small dams hold back river water

so it flows into irrigation channels.
Groundwater
• An aquifer is an underground
layer of water-bearing rock.
• Water-bearing rocks are
permeable, meaning that
liquids and gases can pass
through them.
• Groundwater is the water
contained in aquifers
• This is replenished or recharged by precipitation that percolates

through the soil to the water table, and by water seeping from streams,
as well as other bodies of surface water, such as lakes and wetlands.
• The water table is the top of the groundwater below the land surface.
• Groundwater reaches the surface naturally through springs or

artificially through wells.
• Springs typically rise up where the water table meets the land surface.
• Springs are important sources of water to feed streams and are

attractive cultural and landscape features in themselves.
• Wells and boreholes are dug by hand or drilled by machine. These have
to be deep enough to extend below the water table so that water can be
drawn up by bucket or by pumping.
Wells and boreholes

Shallow wells and boreholes usually have a depth of less than 30 m, although they
can be as much as 60 m deep, especially in very dry areas of Ethiopia where the water
table is low. Depending on the depth of the well, water may be drawn up by a bucket
and rope or by using a pump
Protected well with concrete surround and a lid

Hand pump over a protected dug well
with black plastic bucket
Deep wells or boreholes
• These are wells that have been sunk with drilling

machines designed for constructing water
extraction boreholes .
• These machines are able to penetrate through

harder material that cannot be tackled by hand
digging and can therefore passthrough at least
one impermeable layer of rock to a productive
aquifer underneath.
• They typically obtain water from depths ranging

from 30 to 60 m, but large urban supply
borehole
boreholes can be much deeper than this.
Springs
• Groundwater may emerge above

ground as a spring. This happens
in locations where the water table
reaches the surface, or where the
boundary between a permeable
layer of underground rock and an
impermeable layer reaches the Protected spring providing water for Bahir Dar
ground surface.
• Springs are normally found at the foot of mountains and hills, in
lower slopes of valleys, and near the banks of major rivers
Rain water is also an important source of water, although on a

relatively small scale. Collecting rain from roofs or other hard-
surfaced areas and storing it until it is needed can provide a valuable
source of water for many purposes.
Rainwater is collected from the roof Rainwater storage ponds

Water source development
• Identifying potential new sources and assessing their viability prior
to development is a skilled technical task that requires several
different factors to be assessed. These factors include:
• Volume of water required:
• Quality:
• Seasonal variations
• Distance between source and users
• Cost:
• Environmental impact:
• Sustainability
• Answers to all of these questions and more, together with detailed
surveys, assessments and analyses, will be required to identify
possible new water sources
Uses of water include
Agricultural : It is estimated that 70% of worldwide water is used for
irrigation,
Industrial: It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in
industry
Domestic use : It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for
domestic purposes.
Recreational and
Environmental activities.

 Industrialized / high-income countries tend to use more water in
their industrial production.
 Other countries tend to use more water for agricultural uses.

Threats to fresh water resources
Threats for the availability of water resources include:
• Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the
standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity
physical or economic water scarcity
• water pollution : Many types of water pollution threaten water
resources, but the most widespread, especially in developing
countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters.

• water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries,
states, or groups over the rights to access water resources
• Climate change could have significant impacts on water
resources around the world because of the close connections
between the climate and hydrological cycle. Rising temperatures
will increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation,
though there will be regional variations in rainfall.

The risks of water insecurity

• Water insecurity is defined as the lack of a reliable source of water,
of appropriate quality and quantity to meet the needs of the local
human population and environment.
• Water insecurity is a social dilemma in the recent decades because
of several factors. Moreover, the widespread presence of arsenic in
groundwater, salinity in both surface and groundwater, and the
insidious disaster of drought make the water insecure and the
population faces water risk in their daily life.

• Water supply problems: Increasing water shortages

• Water conflicts: Where demand exceeds supply and no effective
management operates, then there will be conflicts between the
various players involved

Water quality parameters

• Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the
requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need
or purpose.
• There are three types of water quality parameters:
• Physical,
• Chemical, and
• Biological


Physical parameters of water quality

Turbidity
• It is the cloudiness of water.
• It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water.
• It is caused by suspended material such as silt, organic material,

plankton, and other particulate materials in water
• Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric
turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU.
• Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person
while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU
Temperature
• Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions
are influenced by temperature.
• In natural water system like lake and river, temperature is very
important physical factor that determines water quality. If
temperature increase, solubility of Oxygen in water decreases.
• sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen
demand (BOD) are temperature dependent
• Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most
palatable
Color
• Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic
matter such as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water.
• Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions
or colored glass disks.
• The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:
o Apparent color is the entire water sample color and consists of both
dissolved and suspended components color .
o True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all
suspended material
• Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless,
which is equivalent to 0 color units.
Taste and odor

• Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as
organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses .
• These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural
sources
Solids
• Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension
• These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber

filter that the water sample passes through

• If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish

and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is
usually called total dissolved solids ( TDS)
• Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows
o Freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
o Brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
o Saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS

Electrical conductivity (EC)

• Conductivity of water is mainly due to presence of ionizable
inorganic compounds.
• Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity
• Typical conductivity of water is as follows:

o Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
o Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
o Seawater: 5 S/m.

Chemical parameters of water quality
pH
• It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration .
• It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic
solution.
• Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is.
pH of water
• Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic

water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions. A high pH makes
the taste bitter and Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve
metals and other substances.
Alkalinity
• The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the
total of all titratable bases
• The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the
amount of lime and soda needed for water softening
• Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions
(OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a
mixture of two of these ions in water.
Acidity
• Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution
• The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a

strong base to a selected pH level .
• Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids,
and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates.
• Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical
reactions and biological activities

Chloride
• Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but
the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in
freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater
pollution .
• Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including
chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.
• Chloride ions( Cl−)in drinking water do not cause any harmful
effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an
unpleasant salty taste for most people.
Chlorine residual
• Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to
water and wastewater for disinfection .
• Chlorine can react with organics in water forming toxic
compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are
carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3 .
Sulfate
• Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater.
• The high concentration of sulfate in natural water is usually

caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate
(Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt)
Nitrogen
• There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic
nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen .
• If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen is in
the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by
microbes to form nitrites and nitrates
• A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the
rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality.
• Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking
water causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants.
Fluoride
• A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good
dental health.
• About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children .
• Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as

dental fluorosis .
• The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on
local climate.
• In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable concentration of
fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is
allowed .

Iron and manganese

• Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health
problems, they impart a noticeable bitter taste to drinking water
even at very low concentration .
• These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous
(Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) ions.
• When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble
ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) forms making the water
turbid and unacceptable to most people.

Copper and zinc

• Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small
concentrations
• They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high
concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water
Hardness
• Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly
mineralized waters
• Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest
portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters
• The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale

deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing lather with
soap
• Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water.
• There are two types of hardness:
• Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and

bicarbonates can be removed by boiling, and
• Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is
caused mainly by sulfates and chlorides

Total hardness mg / L as CaCO 3 =

calcium hardness mg / L as CaCO 3 + magnesium hardness mg / L as CaCO 3
• Classification of water according to its hardness

Dissolved oxygen
• Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most
important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes.
• The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the
water quality.
• Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to
temperature.
• The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on
pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

• Biological oxygen demand represents amount of oxygen required
by living organism (microorganism) for oxidation of biodegradable
organic matters present in water under aerobic condition.
• BOD is a direct measurement of quality of oxygen needed for
biodegradation of organic matter and indirect measurement of
quantity of biodegradable organic matter in water.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

• COD is amount of oxygen needed for oxidation of organic matter
present in water by strong chemical oxidizing agents such as
K2Cr2O7.
• The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that
measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-
biodegradable substances .
• It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium
dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat.

Toxic organic substances

• These compounds include insecticides ,pesticides, solvents, detergents, and
disinfectants
Toxic inorganic substances

• wide variety of inorganic toxic substances may be found in water in very
small or trace amounts.
• Metallic compounds and Nonmetallic compounds
Radioactive substances

Biological parameters of water quality
• One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the

presence or lack of living organism
• Bacteria
• Algae
• Viruses
• Protozoa
• A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the

group of bacteria called coliforms
Water quality requirements
• Water quality requirements differ depending on the proposed used
of water.
• water unsuitable for one use may be quite satisfactory for another
and water may be considered acceptable for a particular use if
water of better quality is not available.
• Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water
quality standards, which are put down by the governmental
agency and represent the legislation requirements.

• Water Quality Standards (Standards) are the foundation of the water

quality based control program mandated by the Clean Water Act.
• Standards are also the technical basis for reducing runoff from rural
and urban areas.
• A standard can consist of either numeric or narrative limits for a

specific physical or chemical parameter.
• Ultimately, a water quality standard is developed to help protect and

maintain water quality necessary to meet and maintain designated or
assigned uses, such as swimming, recreation, public water supply,
and/or aquatic life.
• The World Health Organization WHO Standard for Drinking Water

(2004)
(WHO) has established
maximum standards for
drinking water that all countries
are recommended to meet .

Ethiopia Drinking Water Specifications 2013

End.

Lecture one summary question
Example one - determination of hardness of water.
1) A sample of ground water has 100mg/L of Ca2+ and 10 mg/L of
Mg2+ . Express its hardness in both meq/L and mg/L as
CaCO3, and classify its hardness.
Example to determination of Alkalinity of water.
2. A sample of water pH 10 has 32 mg/L of .

Find the alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3

Chapter - 2 (Lecture - 1)

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Debre Berhan University

Course Name : Basic Environmental Engineering

Basic Environmental Engineering 2

o Water cycle o Uses of water

Basic Environmental Engineering 3

Water cycle (hydrologic cycle)

• Water needs to be replenished, purified and circulated again and again

• Also known as hydrologic cycle, the water cycle is a phenomenon

• The water cycle has many effects:

• It regulates the temperature of the surroundings.

• It changes weather and creates rain.

• It helps in conversion of rocks to soil.

• It circulates important minerals through the spheres.

• It also creates the many geographical features present on earth.

• Hence it is quite important to understand and learn the processes of

Basic Environmental Engineering 5

Basic Environmental Engineering 6

Basic Environmental Engineering 7

Basic Environmental Engineering 8

Basic Environmental Engineering 9

Basic Environmental Engineering 10

When the snow melts into water it also leads to runoff.

Basic Environmental Engineering 12

The infiltration is measured as inches of water-soaked by the soil

Basic Environmental Engineering 13

Basic Environmental Engineering 14

Fresh water is water with a dissolved salt concentration

Basic Environmental Engineering 15

Distribution of water resources on the earth

In Ethiopia, there are 12 major river

The average annual flow of water

Several of the major rivers cross to

Egypt, and the Omo to Kenya.

• In Ethiopia, it is estimated that 54.4 billion m3 of surface run-off and

Basic Environmental Engineering 19

Small dams hold back river water

• This is replenished or recharged by precipitation that percolates

• Groundwater reaches the surface naturally through springs or

• Springs are important sources of water to feed streams and are

Wells and boreholes

Protected well with concrete surround and a lid

Deep wells or boreholes

• These are wells that have been sunk with drilling

• These machines are able to penetrate through

• They typically obtain water from depths ranging

• Groundwater may emerge above

Rain water is also an important source of water, although on a

Rainwater is collected from the roof Rainwater storage ponds

Basic Environmental Engineering 28

Basic Environmental Engineering 29

Threats for the availability of water resources include:

• Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the

standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity

physical or economic water scarcity

• water pollution : Many types of water pollution threaten water

resources, but the most widespread, especially in developing

countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters.

Basic Environmental Engineering 30

• water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries,

states, or groups over the rights to access water resources

• Climate change could have significant impacts on water

resources around the world because of the close connections