Enhanced Single-Loop Control Strategies

1. Cascade control
Chapter 16

2. Time-delay compensation
3. Inferential control
4. Selective and override control
5. Nonlinear control
6. Adaptive control

1
 Example: Cascade Control
Chapter 16

2
 Chapter 16

3
 Chapter 16

4
 Cascade Control
• Distinguishing features:
1. Two FB controllers but only a single control
valve (or other final control element).
Chapter 16

2. Output signal of the "master" controller is the

set-point for “slave" controller.
3. Two FB control loops are "nested" with the
"slave" (or "secondary") control loop inside
the "master" (or "primary") control loop.
• Terminology:
slave vs. master
secondary vs. primary
inner vs. outer 5
 Chapter 16

6
 Y1 G P1Gd 2
 (16  5)
D2 1  G c 2 G v G p 2Gm 2  G c1 G c 2 G v G p 2G p1 Gm1

Y1 = hot oil temperature

Chapter 16

Y2 = fuel gas pressure

D1 = cold oil temperature (or cold oil flow rate)
D2 = supply pressure of gas fuel
Ym1 = measured value of hot oil temperature
Ym 2 = measured value of fuel gas temperature
Ysp1 = set point for Y1
Ysp 2 = set point for Y2
7
 Example 16.1
Consider the block diagram in Fig. 16.4 with the following
transfer functions:
5 4
Gv  G p1  G p2  1
s 1 4s  1 2s  1
1
Chapter 16

Gd 2  1 Gm1  0.05 Gm2  0.2 Gd1 

3s  1

8
 Chapter 16

9
 Example 16.2
Compare the set-point responses for a second-order process with a time delay
(min) and without the delay. The transfer function is
e  s
G p ( s)  16  18 
5s  13s  1
Assume Gm  Gv  1 and time constants in minutes. Use the following PI
Chapter 16

controllers. For   0, Kc  3.02and1  6.5min, while for  2 min the controller

gain must be reduced to meet stability requirements  Kc  1.23,1  7.0min .

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Chapter 16 Time Delay Compensation


E'  E  Y1  Ysp  Y1  Y  Y2  16  19 
If the process model is perfect and the disturbance is zero, then Y2  Y and
E'  Ysp  Y1 16  20 
For this ideal case the controller responds to the error signal that would occur if not
time  
G  G ,
were present. Assuming there is no model error the inner loop has the
effective transfer function P Gc
G'   16  21

E 1  G G * 1  e s
c  11
Chapter 16

For no model error: G = G  G* e - s

Gc
Gc 

1  Gc G* 1  e  s 
Y Gc G* e  s Gc G
 
Ysp 1  Gc G* e  s 1  Gc G*

By contrast, for conventional feedback control

Y Gc G*e s
 16  23
Ysp 1  GcG*e  s
12
 Chapter 16

13
 Chapter 16

14
 Inferential Control
• Problem: Controlled variable cannot be measured or has
large sampling period.
Chapter 16

• Possible solutions:
1. Control a related variable (e.g., temperature instead
of composition).
2. Inferential control: Control is based on an estimate
of the controlled variable.
• The estimate is based on available measurements.
– Examples: empirical relation, Kalman filter
• Modern term: soft sensor

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 Inferential Control

• Uses easily measure process variables (T, P, F) to

infer more difficult to measure quantities such as
compositions and molecular weight.
• Can substantially reduce analyzer delay.
• Can be much less expensive in terms of capital
and operating costs.
• Can provide measurements that are not available
any other way.
 Inferential Control with Fast and Slow
Measured Variables
Chapter 16

17
Inferential Temperature Control
for Distillation Columns

TT TC
Tray 10

RSP

FC

FT
 Choosing a Proper Tray
Temperature Location
86
Temperature (ºC) 84 Tray 10

82
80
78 Tray 18
76
3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Mole Percent Propane

• A tray temperature used for inferential control

should show strong sensitivity.
Feedback Correction for Feed
Composition Changes

RSP
TT TC AC
Tray 10

RSP

FC

FT
AT
 Selective Control Systems & Overrides

• For every controlled variable, it is very desirable that

there be at least one manipulated variable.
Chapter 16

• But for some applications,

NC > NM
where:
NC = number of controlled variables

NM = number of manipulated variables

For such cases, it is not possible to eliminate effect
of every disturbance from every controlled
variable.
• Solution: Use a selective control system or an override.
Selective control is also referred as “Auctioneering”. 21
 • Low selector:
Chapter 16

• High selector:

• Median selector:
• The output, Z, is the median of an odd number of inputs

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 Example: High Selector Control System
Chapter 16

• multiple measurements
• one controller
• one final control element

23
Chapter 16

2 measurements, 2 controllers,
1 final control element
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 Overrides
• An override is a special case of a selective control
system
• One of the inputs is a numerical value, a limit.
Chapter 16

• Used when it is desirable to limit the value of a

signal (e.g., a controller output).
• Softer than ESD or SIS
• Example:
- anti-reset wind-up
- lower and upper heat input rate for distillation
column for ensuring liquid inventory or preventing
flooding of the column

• Split-range control
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 Chapter 16

26
 Nonlinear Control Strategies
• Most physical processes are nonlinear to some degree. Some are very nonlinear.
Examples: pH, high purity distillation columns, chemical reactions
with large heats of reaction.
• However, linear control strategies (e.g., PID) can be effective if:
1. The nonlinearities are rather mild.
Chapter 16

or,
2. A highly nonlinear process usually operates over a narrow range of conditions.
• For very nonlinear strategies, a nonlinear control strategy can provide
significantly better control.
• Two general classes of nonlinear control:
1. Enhancements of conventional, linear, feedback control
2. Model-based control strategies
Reference: Henson & Seborg (Ed.), 1997 book.

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 Enhancements of Conventional Feedback Control

We will consider three enhancements of conventional feedback control:

1. Nonlinear modifications of PID control
Chapter 16

2. Nonlinear transformations of input or output variables

3. Controller parameter scheduling such as gain scheduling.
Nonlinear Modifications of PID Control:
• One Example: nonlinear controller gain

K c  Kc 0 (1  a | e(t ) | ) (16-26)
• Kc0 and a are constants, and e(t) is the error signal (e = ysp - y).

• Also called, error squared controller because controller output is

proportional to |e(t)||e(t)|

• Example: level control in surge vessels.

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 Nonlinear Transformations of Variables
• Objective: Make the closed-loop system as linear as possible. (Why?)
• Typical approach: transform an input or an output.
Example: logarithmic transformation of a product composition in a high purity
distillation column. (cf. McCabe-Thiele diagram)
Chapter 16

1  xD
x*D  log (16-27)
1  xDsp

where x*D denotes the transformed distillate composition.

• Related approach: Define u or y to be combinations of several

variables, based on physical considerations.
Example: Continuous pH neutralization
CVs: pH and liquid level, h
MVs: acid and base flow rates, qA and qB
• Conventional approach: single-loop controllers for pH and h.
• Better approach: control pH by adjusting the ratio, qA / qB, and
control h by adjusting their sum. Thus,
u1 = qA / qB and u2 = qA / qB
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 Gain Scheduling
• Objective: Make the closed-loop system as linear as possible.
• Basic Idea: Adjust the controller gain based on current measurements of
a “scheduling variable”, e.g., u, y, or some other variable.
Chapter 16

Kc3
Kc2
Kc1

• Note: Requires knowledge about how the process gain changes with this
measured variable.

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 Examples of Gain Scheduling
• Example 1. Titration curve for a strong acid-strong base neutralization.
• Example 2. Once through boiler
The open-loop step response are shown in Fig. 16.18 for two
different feedwater flow rates.
Chapter 16

Fig. 16.18 Open-loop responses.

• Proposed control strategy: Vary controller setting with w, the fraction of

full-scale (100%) flow.
K c  wK c ,  I   I / w,  D   D / w, (16-30)

• Compare with the IMC controller settings for Model H in Table 12.1:

 s  
Ke 1 2,  
Model H : G ( s )  , Kc  I    , D 
s  1 K  2 2  
c 
2
31
 Adaptive Control
• A general control strategy for control problems where the process or operating conditions can change significantly and unpredictably.

Example: Catalyst decay, equipment fouling

• Many different types of adaptive control strategies have been proposed.

• Self-Tuning Control (STC):
Chapter 16

– A very well-known strategy and probably the most widely used adaptive control strategy.
– Basic idea: STC is a model-based approach. As process conditions change, update the model parameters by using least squares estimation and
recent u & y data.
• Note: For predictable or measurable changes, use gain scheduling
instead of adaptive control
Reason: Gain scheduling is much easier to implement and less trouble
prone.

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 Block Diagram for Self-Tuning Control
Chapter 16

33
PID Implementation Issues

34
 Bumpless Transfer
• When a control loop is turned on without
bumpless transfer, the process can become
unduly upset.
• With bumpless transfer, an internal setpoint is
used for the controller and the internal setpoint
is ramped at a slow rate from the initial
conditions to the actual desired setpoint to order
to provide a smooth startup of a control loop.

35
Comparison of True and Internal
Setpoints

True Setpoint

Internal Setpoint

Time

36
Control Performance With and
Without Bumpless Transfer

w/o bumpless transfer

w/ bumpless transfer

Time

37
 Split Range Flow Control
• In certain applications, a single flow control loop cannot
provide accurate flow metering over the full range of
operation.
• Split range flow control uses two flow controllers (one
with a small control valve and one with a large control
valve) in parallel.
• At low flow rates, the large valve is closed and the
small valve provides accurate flow control.
• At large flow rates, both valve are open.

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Split Range Flow Controller

FC
FT

FT
FC

39
Coordination of Control Valves
for Split Range Flow Control
Smaller Control
Valve
Signal to Control Valve
(%)

Larger Control
Valve

Total Flow Rate

40
Split Range Temperature Control

Split-Range
Temperature
Cooling Controller
Water

RSP
Steam
TT

TT TC
41
 Split Range Temperature Control
100
Signal to Control Valve

80

60
(%)

Cooling Steam
40 Water

20

0
Error from Setpoint for Jacket Temperature
42
 Overview
• All controllers that employ integral action
should have anti-reset windup applied.
• Bumpless transfer provides a means for
smooth startup of a control loop.
• When accurate metering of a flow over a
very wide flow rate range is called for, use
split range flow control.

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