Principles of Aquaculture

Principle-a rule of conduct, fundamental truth or law on which others are

based, or a scientific law explaining a natural action
Definition of Aquaculture:
Aquaculture - is the farming and husbandry of aquatic organisms under a
controlled or semi-controlled condition primarily for the purpose of food
production.
Aquaculture is defined here according to the
definition currently used by FAO for statistical
purposes, i.e.
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs,
crustaceans and aquatic plants.
-Farming implies some sort of intervention in the rearing process to enhance
production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc.
-Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being
cultivated.
-For statistical purposes, aquatic organisms which are harvested by an
individual or corporate body which has been owned by them throughout their
rearing period contribute to aquaculture while aquatic organisms which are
exploitable by the public as a common property resource, with or without
appropriate licenses, are the harvest of fisheries."
1. Site selection is an important aspect of
aquaculture.
-A system that is optimum for one site may not be of consequence
in another because production, site acquisition and development
costs vary between places.
-The criteria for site selection are largely determined by the culture
species and the level of culture, whether extensive or intensive.
-Topography, Water Supply, Soil, Vegetation, Flood Hazards and
Strong Waves, Marketing Facilities and Other Economic Factors
2. Species selection for aquaculture should be
determined hand in hand with site selection.

CRITERIA:

Fast Growth
-logically, the faster the organisms grow, the shorter the time of
culture.
- The main objective is to produce marketable size fish in the
shortest time possible, thereby ensuring optimized profitability
and fast turnover.
Short food chain
-Theoretically, organisms with a trophic niche close to the base of the
food chain are more economical to culture than those belonging to
higher levels.
-Organisms referred to are herbivores which could be effectively
reared on the natural productivity of the pond
-Recent trends, however, indicate that these organisms can also be
grown using supplemental or completely artificial diet (i.e. in rearing
milkfish and tilapia)
Efficient feed conversion
-Obviously, the more efficient food conversion is, the lesser is the expense in
feeding.
-This very well applies in both natural and artificial rearing of fish since only costs
relatively differ while the direct input-output relationships remain the same.
-Food conversion simply refers to the amount of food given (dry weight) in
relation to the fresh weight gained by the fish
-The lower the conversion factor is, the higher is the conversion efficiency and this
factor could range from as low as one (or perhaps lower) and as high as ten.
-Conversion factor of one means that a kilo of food produces a kilo of fish while
conversion factor of ten means ten kilos of food produce one kilo of fish
Good Consumer Acceptance

-Marketability of cultured organisms depends on its acceptability as

food
-Good eating qualities include meat texture, absence of intermuscular
bones, and taste
-Also odor, color, luster, and form
- May also include the external characteristics being the freshness or
staleness of fish
Spawn Naturally or Artificially and of High
Fecundity
-This is to ensure continuous supply of seeds or fry
-Seasonal vs Year round Spawners (i.e. milkfish and tilapia)
- Highly fecund organisms allow selection and separation of the
best seeds for breeding purposes, thus, production of large
number of progenies can be expected , ensuring a year round
production cycle.
Tolerance to a wide range of enviromental
conditions
Universally, growth and survival of aquatic organisms are largely dependent on water
quality
The requirements of various species of fish differ so that choice of species depends on
their ability to tolerate conditions in the farm
Ability to tolerate crowding may also be considered
Fish are generally gregarious (fish are happier when grown in groups except for some
which grow well in isolation)
Essentially, what governs their growth performance is the quality of their
environment (on top of their inherent growth character) which easily deteriorate in
high density culture where life support facilities are absent.
There is certainly a limit to this since other factors like inter-and intraspecific
relationships and space allocations may begin to operate thereby modifying growth
resposes of fish.
3. Design and construction of aquaculture farms
should meet the requirements of the species to
be cultured.
This is to ensure that the pond facilities shall conform to the
characteristics and behavior of the chosen species to optimize
growth and survival
Fish production is essentially governed by interactions among
the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the water
and the species of fish or fishes present.
-Origin (natural vs. man made)
-Stocking density, kind and amount of fertilization,
supplemental feeding, the fish species used either in
monoculture or in various levels of polyculture
4. Plants directly or indirectly affect fish or
aquatic animals.
1. Phytoplankton
a. nannoplankton-mesh size of 30-40 microns
b. net plankton – mesh size of 40 u
c. macroplankton - large plankton, visible to the
naked eye
2. Microphytic Algae
a. Filamentous Algae – an elongated thin series of cells
attached to one another or a very long, thin cylindrical single
cell (as of some algae, i.e. Entoromorpha intestinalis or
bitukang manok)
b. Periphyton – organisms that live attached to underwater
surfaces
c. Benthos – organisms that live on or in the bottom of a water
body
3. Higher aquatic plants
a. Emergent plants –rooted on the bottom and part of the
length is projected at the surface, i.e. rice
b. Floating plants – either totally floating or rooted in the
bottom or float in the surface, i.e. duckweed, water lily
c. Submerged aquatic plants – continuously submerged in the
water, i.e. eel grass
5. The weight of fish that can be produced in a
particular water body is largely dependent upon
the ability of the water and its environment to
produce the necessary plants.

-Water suitability
-Interplay of environmental factors, i.e. biological, physical and
chemical factors
6. The natural productivity of the water is
dependent upon the fertility of the pond bottom
and the watershed.

-Accumulation of nutrients from plant and animal wastes

-Flow of water from watershed carrying possible nutrients
needed by the water body
7. Water fertility can be increased by the
addition of organic or inorganic fertilizers.
-Fertilization can increase production 4-5 times
-Ponds fertilized with P and N for 3-5 years
-N is not needed anymore
-Ponds fertilized for more than 15 years still need P
8. After essential elements are provided, the
next limiting factor is carbon dioxide.

-CO2 acts as buffer against rapid change in pH

-It is essential in photosynthesis
-Carbonic acid is very weak
-Bicarbonate takes a lot of chemical to titrate because it is a strong
buffer
-Sources of CO2
- OM decomposition, respiration of plants and animals, from
inflowing ground water and from air
9. After adequate supply of nutrients and CO2,
the next limiting factor is oxygen demand
(BOD and COD).

-BOD – amount of oxygen required by bacteria in decomposing

organic matter under aerobic condition
-It determines the pollution or strength of domestic or
industrial wastes
-COD- is the total amount of oxygen required for complete
oxidation of organic matter into CO2 and water.
-Based on the fact that OM can be oxidized by a strong
oxidizing agent under acidic condition.
10. Microscopic plants are more desirable than
macroscopic plants.

-High nutrient content

i.e. anabaena-55% CP
diatoms-23% CP
microcystis – 54% CP
-Have short life cycle
-Mobile, small in size, easily consumed by fish
11. Rooted plants are less desirable.
-Large size
-Have long life cycle
-Immobile
-Shading effect
-Compete with the algae for nutrients
-Provide hiding place and attachment for predators
-Vector of parasite and disease
Rooted plants are desirable at times.
-They draw up the nutrient from the bottom soil and when they
die they contribute to the nutrient of the water
-Oxygenate the deep water
-Prevent marginal erosion
-Provide attachment place for fishfood organisms (periphyton
and nekton)
-Serve as food for fish directly or indirectly ( eaten by insects
which are eaten by fish)
12. Rooted plants are desirable at times.

-Provide spawning area for some fishes (adhesive eggs)

-Reduce nutrients from the water; waters too fertile or polluted.
-Rooted plants clean up the water.
-Provide shelter for small fish from predator
-Precipitate silt and colloids in water; tend to clear up
water for ponds rich in clay have plenty of colloids
13. The more fertile the water, the denser the
plankton growth and the lesser is light penetration.
-Stratification of DO and temperature
-when DO is supersaturated at the surface and zero at the bottom and when
there is a change in temperature, water density becomes heavier during night
time, a turn over will occur which lead to fish kill.
-strong winds can also cause turnover
-Heavy bloom of phytoplankton cause off flavor fish
-Off flavor odor is from dead natural food
-Occurrence of heavy rains agitate the water and cause turn over
-Occurrence of die offs produce toxins which are harmful to the cultured
organisms
A constant supply of basic nutrients necessary for optimal
yield of the cultured fish is an important aspect of successful
aquaculture system management
-Especially important in extensive culture systems where food sources for the
cultured species are typically maintained internally, as are most of the nutrients
such as nitrogen, phosphorous and carbon compounds.
-Addition of fertilizers is an alternative to ensure proper nutrient balance
may be used
-Concept of nutrient cycling
-Involves a number of chemical and biological processes, but a major
contributor is bacteria, which utilize substances in water and sediments and
make them available to other organisms in the pond.
-Nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle, carbon-oxygen cycle, etc.
14. The longer the time it takes the food chain from
plants to fish, the lower the fish production. Hence,
the shorter the food chain, the higher the fish
production.

-herbivores vs. carnivores

-tilapia, milkfish, siganids
-grouper, seabass, snapper
15. At a given level of fertility, fish production is
a constant for:

-a particular species
-particular rate of stocking
-within a particular period of time
-concept of carrying capacity
16. For a short period of time, the number and the
final size of fish can be regulated by the number
stocked.

-Culture can be extended by controlling reproduction

-Frequent harvest or harvest before spawning
-Stock small sized fish that will not reproduce during the
culture period
-Use sterile hybrid
-Monosex culture, i.e. manual sexing, hormone induction or by
cross breeding
-High stocking rate, overcrowding
17. For a longer period of time and where fish
can reproduce, the number and size of fish
must be controlled by biological means.

-By use of predators or fish that control reproduction

-Heavy stocking-20,000/ha
-By exposing the fish to a condition different from their natural
condition (i.e. tilapia in saline/brackishwater or milkfish in
freshwater)
18. To produce yearly crop of harvestable size
fish in adequate number in natural
population, there must be a balance of
carnivorous (piscivorous) and forage fish.
-The piscivorous fish will consume the seeds produce by the
forage fish
-Typical example: grouper-tilapia culture
-concept of equilibrium
19. Within a limited period of time, with
adequate food for growth, final weight of fish is
a function of initial weight.
-Uniform size vs. mixed size (mixed ages)
-Small vs. medium vs. large size (separated by age)
-preference is the production of uniform size fish at harvest
20. For a short period of time, in environments where
growth is not limited by low DO or wastes, highest
production of any species results from the monoculture of
that species.
-Tilapia spp only-2000kgs
-Tilapia + other species – 1500 kgs
-Due to the interspecific competition of different species
occupying overlapping food habits
21. The greatest total weight of fish can be
produced by combination of forage fish with
different food habits or polyculture.

-Consume different kind of food

-Competition for space and food is non-existent
-Optimum utilization of available food and space
22. The amount of feed required to maintain 1 kg of fish for
one year is approximately equal to the amount required to
grow small fish that size

-market able size fish is a number one consideration

-economical and convenience
23. In a constant level of food abundance, a population where
sufficient number of fish are present will continue to grow or
expand until the harvestable food available approaches the
amount needed for maintenance.
-concept of carrying capacity
-natural productivity or fertility
-extensive, semi-intensive, intensive
24. The presence of piscivorous fish decreases the total
weight in a population where reproduction is possible but
increase the average size of those surviving.

-polyculture involving herbivorous and piscivorous organisms

-grouper and tilapia, seabass and tilapia, snapper and tilapia
-consideration on food and feeding habits
25. Feeding rates for a particular species with
a particular feed:
-Feeding rate refers to the amount of feed given to the
organisms
-Feeding to repletion is uneconomical
-Feeding a maintenance level is uneconomical
-Economical feeding varies with species and size of fish
26. The safe feeding rate per unit area of water is
limited by the efficiency of the ecological system
to dispose the waste.
-The presence of waste affects the efficiency of the fish to
consume available food
-Speed up deterioration making conditions unfavorable
27. High quality feed must contain the proper
(optimum) proportion of:

-Protein and EAA

-Fats and EFA
-Carbohydrates
-Vitamins
-Minerals
28. The quality of feed affects:

-The amount of waste

-Health of the fish
-Rate of growth
-Reproduction
29. When a feed is supplied as a pond supplement, its quality
must be upgraded by natural food organisms.

-Plankton
-Algae
-Macrophytes
30. As production per unit area increases, the quality of the
feed must be higher.

-Particularly true to intensive culture systems

-Reliance on natural food is not anymore considered
-Complete and balance diet
31. If a feed is not supplemented by natural food organisms,
then the feed must be a complete feed and contain all the
essential nutrients required by that particular species at the
right proportion.
-Proper Feeding Protocol, Feeding Schedule, Feeding Rate,
Feeding Frequency
-Computation of Daily Feed Ration
-DFR = SD x ABW x FR x SR
-FCR = TFC/TWG
32. The growth rate of the fish varies
widely with :
-Water quality (fertility of the water)
-Inherent ability to grow (bigger size, faster growth rate)
-Number of fish stock/unit area
-Quality of food
-Space and waste disposal
-Health of fish
-Optimum/suitable environmental factors, i.e. temp., salinity, pH,
D.O.
33. Within limit where a large number of small fish are present,
increase rate of feeding can replace predation in obtaining a high
percentage/proportion of marketable size fish.
-Particular to polyculture systems
-herbivorous and carnivorous fish
Production losses in warmwater pond culture can result
from the occurrence of disease, competitors, pests or
predators in these systems.
-reduction in yields are manifested by growth suppression, and
or actual fish morbidity and mortality.
-direct effect of unsuitable water quality
34. The more fish per unit area, the greater the
disease problem.

-Pr0liferation of Pathogenic Organisms

- virus, bacteria, fungi, parasites
-Faster Deterioration of Water Quality
- feed, waste, etc.
Water quality is one of the most important factor
affecting successful pond fish culture.
-if water quality is excellent, then survival, growth and reproduction can achieve
high values, otherwise fish production will be reduced or impossible.
-water quality is defined simply as “the degree of excellence that a given water
possesses for the propagation of desirable aquatic organisms”.
-the required quality is a function of the specific culture organism and it has
many components that are complexly interwoven
-sometimes a component of water quality can be dealt with individually, but
because of the complex interactions of components, one must usually view the
total array and attempt to determine which components are critically limiting
the culture organisms.
-often, several components must be manipulated to achieve a stable
improvement in the “degree of excellence”
Quotes about learning:
“If you are not willing to learn, no one can help you.
If you are determined to learn, no one can stop you.”
-Anonymous
“Learn everything you can, anytime you can, from anyone you
can, there will always come a time when you will be grateful
YOU DID.”
-Sarah Caldwell
 End of Slide
Thank you and Good Luck to All!