Professional Documents
Culture Documents
An Overview: Metals
An Overview: Metals
Presented By
KG.PANDITHAN,IWE
Advisor – RIBO Industries
Metals
Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are
opaque to light (shiny if polished).
Metallic materials are again classified for ease of selection and/or based on their tonnage of usage broadly
into two classes
Ferrous Materials
Non-ferrous Materials
Ferrous Metal
Ferrous Materials can be classified into two major categories based on carbon
content
Steels : %C is up to 2.14%
Cast irons : %C is above 2.14%
Cast irons are called so because they are usually manufactured through casting
technique owing to their brittle nature due to presence of iron carbide.
Generally plain carbon steels contain other elements whose presence due to
Steel Making practice (Si & Mn added as deoxidizers)
Impossibility of removal and from raw material (S & P)
AISI (American Iron & Steel Institute) defines carbon steels as iron carbon alloys
having a maximum of 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si , 0.60% Cu.
Classification of Steel
Ferrous
Metals
Plain Carbon
Alloy Steel Grey Ductile Malleable White
Steel
The low carbon steels contain with 0.15% C with 0.3% to 0.4% of Mn
Yield Strength - 200 to 300 Mpa
Tensile Strength – 300 to 370 Mpa
Elongation - 28% to 40%
Low Carbon Steel
Because of high ductility, these steels find application in the form of cold-deformed shapes such as
Automobile bodies,
refrigerator bodies,
tin cans,
corrugated sheets & solid drawn tubes
o Rimmed Variety fins applications rod & wire for
nails, rivets,
fencing, binding,
cable-armouring, ferroconcrete bars
Mild Steel
Mild steels having higher carbon content than low carbon steel and thus, have higher strength but lower
ductility
Due to this, these steels are normally are hot rolled or forged and air cooled (or sometimes normalized)
Weathering Steels
Addition of both 0.40% Cu & 0.10% P together to mild steels increase the corrosion resistance.
0.80% Cr also increases corrosion resistance of mild steel
Medium Carbon Steel
They are less ductile and stronger than low carbon steels.
These steels are often used in normalized condition for a great variety of components
Drop forging (0.3 – 0.5% C) for general engineering purposes, boiler drums, agricultural tools
0.3 – 0.4% C steels for shafts, high tensile tubes, wire fish plates
0.4 0.5% C steels for turbo –electric disc, shafts, rotors, die-blocks, gears & tyre
High Carbon Steel
These steels are heat treated to attain high hardness & wear resistance
0.6 0.65 % C - Railway rails, laminated springs for railways & automobiles, wheel spokes, wire ropes
0.75 – 0.85 % C - Car Bumpers, cold chisels, large die for cold-process
1.1 – 1.4 % C – Razors, gauges, drills, reamers, turning & planning tools
Limitations of Plain Carbon Steel
Difficult to harden plain carbon steel parts thicker than 1.5 cm up to centre ( Due to low hardenability)
Low corrosion & oxidation resistance
Major loss of hardness on stress reliving, tempering treatment
Poor high temperature properties
Alloy Steels
The limitations of alloy steels are overcome by the use of alloy steels.
The presence of alloying elements, not only enhances the characteristics but also improves the following properties.
Improve the hardenability
Improved Corrosion & Oxidation Resistance
Increasing resistance to softening on tempering on tempering
Increase high temperature properties
Steels are regarded as plain carbon steels which contain not more than 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si, and 0.60% Cu and all other steels
being regarded as alloy steels
Alloying Elements
• A Ferrite –Stabilizer & strong • A strong carbide former • A ferrite stabilizer & Strong
carbide forming element carbide forming element
• Mo carbides enhance creep • Increases wear & abrasion • Forms Vanadium carbides to
resistance of steel resistance increase abrasion & wear
resistance
• Increases the resistance to • A part of corrosion & heat –
softening on tempering • Improves the hardenability &
resisting steels
Creep strength
Characteristic effects of alloying elements
• A Ferrite –Stabilizer, a strong • Neither forms carbide nor cause • No solubility in ferrite A ferrite
carbide & nitride forming element graphitization stabilizer & Strong carbide
forming element
• Titanium carbides enhance wear & • Reduces hardenability but
abrasion resistance of steel improves resistance to softening • Boron increases hardenability
on tempering
• Added in SS to prevent Cr to form • Boron is used in C -Mn steels for
Chromium Carbide. • Acts as bonding base for cemented superior cold forming properties.
carbide particles
High Strength Low Alloy Steel (HSLA)
Micro-Alloyed steels are having small additions (≤0.2%) of alloying elements to 0.03% C and up to 1.5% Mn
Very small addition of Nb, Ti, V & Al forms the finely dispersed precipitates of carbides or carbo-nitrides of these
elements cause refinement in grain size as well as precipitation hardening
The grain refinement improves the yield strength to about 450 -550 Mpa and decreases the Ductile to britlle
transition temperature as low as -70˚c
Even HSLA steels have good formability, it is difficult to do deep-cold-pressing, etc. But
DPLA offer great potentials.
The strong carbide forming elements like V, Ti may be added to get high yield
strength (> 2000 Mpa) with 20 -25% elongation
These steels are having a minimum 11.5% of Cr which is having more affinity for oxygen than iron
Cr reacts with oxygen and forms a very thin, protective & stable Chromium oxide (Cr2O3) layer
This is a continuous , impervious & passive layer to stop further reaction between steel & surrounding
atmosphere
Cr imparts to the steels corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance & pleasing appearance
The combination of Cr with Ni, Mo & Mn enhance the creep strength, toughness and ductility
Type of Stainless Steel
Typical Grades: AISI 405, 409, 430, 430 Nb, 444, 446
AISI 430 is general purpose grade in chemical industry (Where
weldability is not required)
Advantages of FSS
Get corroded in Chloride & Sulphur dioxide containing industrial & marine atmospheres
After high temperature treatment such as welding, the grains become very coarse & difficult to be refined.
FSS are inferior where stretch – forming is required. So we couldn’t use it in deep drawing applications
Martensitic Stainless Steel
These are austenitic at temperature of 950 - 1000° c, but transform to martensite on cooling.
Heat treatable and can be hardened tempered to obtain yield strength of 550 -1860 Mpa
The carbon content is kept low to have good weldability, formability and impact strength
These steels are quenched in oil or air from around 1050°c and then tempered.
Tempering temperature is kept low for high tensile as well as yield strengths
AISI 410 is a general purpose martensite alloy used widely for components such as bolts, valves, pump
shafts and bearings
Moreover it finds applications in petro-chemical and chemical plant construction, gas-turbine engines,
turbine blades, propeller shafts in ships.., etc.
HIGH CARBON HIGH STRENGTH MARTENSITIC
STAINLESS STEELS
High carbon content increases the strength and hardness but lowers the weldability & toughness.
These steels are having 16 – 25% Cr and sufficient amount of austenite stabilizing elements like Ni, Mn or
N.
Tough even at low temperature & there is no ductile to brittle transition temperature
Austenitic Stainless Steel
These steels are also very resistant to high temperature oxidation because of the Chromium oxide layer
The ASS is prone to Stress Corrosion Cracking . But reduced in high Ni (> 30% ) austenitc alloys
These are the single phase FCC materials and so it can be welded easily. But very prone to weld decay.
AISI 304 & 316 steels are prone to weld decay
AISI 304L & 316L ( L indicates low carbon <0.3%) are made to take car of weld decay
Nb or Ti is added to AISI 324 & 347 to take care of weld decay
Austenitic Stainless Steel
These steels are having high Nickel. So these are expensive. But used for making House-hold utensils &
structural purposes
Stabilized and molybdenum grades find applications in chemical industries and for welding purposes
High chromium grades have high oxidation and scaling resistance to find applications in steam pipes, boiler
tubes, radiant super heater tubes, furnace parts etc.
Alloys 904L, Al-6X and 254 SMO have been developed for sea water applications to avoid pitting corrosion
High Mo ASS are used for brackish or sea water cooling heat exchangers/condenser tube applications for
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS
Contains ferrite & austenite in microstructure . The exact proportion of the phases is controlled by heat treatment
Controlled rolling treatment by hot working in range of 900 - 950°c or even lower temperature produces a very fine
dispersion of ferrite and austenite grains called micro-duplex steels.
These steels exhibit super plasticity, i.e. very high ductility of about 500% at high temperature of 950°c
Balance between Cr equivalent elements as well as Ni equivalent elements help to obtain better proportion. (23 – 30 %
Cr and 2.5 – 7 % Ni and some Ti & Mo)
Combination of toughness & weldability of austenite with strengths & resistance to localized corrosion of ferrite
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS
Have freedom from trans-granular scc, as the ferrite phase is immune to the SCC
Have good weldability but micro-duplex structure is destroyed in HAZ, which decreases the strength as well as stress
corrosion resistance.
Due to presence of ferrite, these steels have ductile to brittle transition temperature.
Suffer from both type of embrittlement effects. 475°c embrittlement & formation of sigma phase.
Typical grades – SAF 2205 , AF 22, Ferralium 255
PRECIPITATION-HARDENABLE
STAINLESS STEELS
It requires to be vacuum melted. So these alloys are restricted for use to high strength to weight ratio applications as
well as high temperature power plant steels
These steels, at least have 10 % Ni or Ni + Mn to keep the steel as austenitic even after precipitation of intermetallic
compounds - Ni3(Al,Ti )
The alloys are solutionised at about 1200° c and then aged at 700 - 800 ° c to result in yield strength of 700 Mpa
Ageing temperature is high. So these steels could be used for high temperature applications.
PRECIPITATION-HARDENABLE
MARTENSITE STEELS
These steels contain low carbon ( < 0.05% ) to have good toughness and Nickel lowered to 4 – 7%
After quenching, the steel is aged at 400-500°c. So the maximum toughness can not be obtained.
The high temperature results in over -aging that causes loss of strength.
Copper alloys
Nickel alloys
Magnesium alloys
Aluminium alloys
Titanium alloys
Properties of Copper
Good ductility & malleability – can be rolled down strips of thick less than 0.0025 cm
Non-Magnetic
o Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc with the zinc content varying from 5 to 54%.
o Small amounts of lead, tin or aluminium also are added to impart specific properties to brass
Gilding Metal Coins, Medals, Base for gold Cartridge Brass Cartridge cases, head light
95% Cu & 5% Zn plating 70% Cu & 30% Zn reflectors for automobiles,
electrical sockets, condenser tubes
Red Brass Electrical Sockets, condenser Admiralty Brass Sn improves corrosion resistance.
90% Cu & 10% Zn tubes, heat-exchanger tubes, 70% Cu, 29% Zn & Condenser tubes , heat exchanger
radiator core 1%Sn tubes in steam power plants
Low Brass Dutch Metal Musical instruments, flexible Aluminium Brass Al improves corrosion resistances
80% Cu & 20% Zn hoses, ornamental work 76% Cu, 22% Zn & 2% more than Sn.
Al Replaces admiralty brass for
marine & land power plants
Name & Composition Applications Name & Composition Applications
Muntz Metal / Yellow Excellent Hot working Prop Architectural Bronze Excellent forging properties.
Brass Easily hot rolled, extruded & 57% Cu, 40% Zn, 3% Lock bodies, handrails, grills
60% Cu & 40% Zn forged @ 800˚C Pb
Ship-Sheathing, valve stems
Free Cutting Brass Excellent machinability Manganese Bronze Clutch disks, pump rods, water
61.5% Cu, 35.5% Zn, Gears, hardware, screw machine 58% Cu, 39% Zn, turbine runners, shafting rods,
3% Pb parts 1.4%Fe, 1% Sn, auto-calve valves
Naval Brass / Tobin Suitable in salt water, in marine Forging brass Hot forgings, hadware &
Bronze hardware as condenser plates, 60% Cu, 38% Zn & 2% plumbing parts
60% Cu, 39% Zn & 1% propeller shafts, piston rods Pb
Sn
Bronze –An alloy of Cu & Sn
Phosphor Bronze Wire brushes, condenser tubes, Silicon Bronze Used in chemical plants in the
93.8% Cu, 6% Sn, 0.2% gears, marine fittings, 96% Cu, 3% Si &1% form strips, plates, wires, tubes,
P Diaphragms, bellows, cotter pins Mn propeller shafts & belts
Mon-corrodible metal in caustic alkalis, ammonia, salt solutions & organic acids
High strength, high heat conductivity & good heat resisting properties
A Nickel 99.4% (Ni+Co), 0.1% High strength & Malleable Evaporators, Heating coils, tanks,
Cu & others Good resistance to corrosion & oxidation hot cathode in radio tubes
E Nickel 97.7% (Ni+Co), 2% Good resistance to Sulphur attack at Furnace lead-in wires, wires in
Mn, 0.05% Cu elevated temperature incandescent lamps
Nickel Alloys
Dura Nickel 93.5% (Ni+Co), 4.5% High strength & High hardness Coil & flat springs, radio-antenna,
Al & others High corrosion resistance optical frames, fish-hooks
Good impact strength
H Monel 63% (Ni+Co), 30.5% Improve the castability Cast turbine nozzles
Cu & 3.2%Si High hardness with adequate ductility
R Monel 67% (Ni+Co), 30% Improve machinability Automatic Screw-machining, bolts & precision
Cu & 1.1%Mn Free cutting grade parts
S Monel 63% (Ni+Co), 30% Age hardenable to have high resistance to Valve seats, plugs, Bushings & Discs for high
Cu, 4%Si & 2% Fe galling & erosion temperature team
Nickel – Chromium Alloys
Name Composition Properties Applications
Chromel A 80% Ni, 20% Cr Good resistance to oxidation, scaling, heat Electric Heating elements for household
Nichrome V appliances & industrial furnace
Chromel C 60% Ni, 16% Cr & Improve the castability Electric Heating elements for toasters, hot-
Nichrome V 24% Fe High hardness with adequate ductility water heaters, hair driers, Rheostats for
electronic equipment
Inconel 78% Ni, 14% Cr, High resistance to corrosion & high Exhaust manifold of airplane engines, Brine-
0.2% Cu, 6.5% Fe, temperature oxidation jacketed tanks, cooling & food processing
0.25% Mn, 0.25% Si strength & toughness equipment for dairy industry
Can withstand repeated heating & cooling in
a range 0 to 870˚C
Inconel X 92.85% Ni+Co),15.5 One of the Super Alloy Gas turbine, supercharger and jet propulsion
% Cr, 2.50%Ti, 6.8% Very good resistance to oxidation
Fe & 0.75% Al High strength at elevated temperatures
Nickel – Molybdenum - Iron Alloys
Name Composition Properties Applications
Al + Cu Al + Mn Al + Si Al + Mg Al + Zn
Increases strength & Increases yield & Increases tensile Increases strength Gives heat treatable
hardness tensile strength strength & hardness and hardness alloys when
Up to13% wt. combined with Mg
If >12% makes the Improves ductility Decrease the hot Good resistance to Increase strength and
alloy brittle cracking Corrosion Hardness
Hot cracking Good resistance to Good resistance to Increase weldability Increased toughness
tendency corrosion Corrosion and machinability but susceptible to
stress corrosion
Decreases corrosion Decrease resistivity cracking
Resistance
Classification of Al alloys
Aluminum Alloys