ENGINEERING MATERIALS

MECHANICAL BLOCK

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 Introduction
Metals form about a quarter of the earth crust by weight
One of the earliest material used dated back to
pre-historic time
Some of the earliest metals used include:
copper, bronze and iron
Stone age  Bronze age  … ’discovery’ of steel
Industrial Revolution in the 18th century
All metals except gold are generally found chemically
combined with other elements in the form of
oxides and sulphates. Commonly known as ores.

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 Pure Metals and Alloys
Metal that are not mixed with any other materials are known
as pure metals. Metals listed in the Periodic Table are pure
metals
E.g. Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn)
Alloys are mixtures of two or more metals formed together
with other elements/materials to create new metals with
improved properties and characteristics.
E.g. Brass (Copper and Zinc),
Stainless steel (steel and chromium)

Alloy = metal A + metal B + … + other elements

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 Ferrous Metals & Non-Ferrous
Metals
Ferrous metals are metals that contain iron
E.g. Steel (iron and carbon)

Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron

E.g. Zinc (pure metal), Bronze (Copper and tin)
(non-ferrous may contain slight traces of iron)

Ferrous Metal = alloy metals that contains iron

( Primary base metal is iron)

Non-ferrous Metal = alloy metals that do not contain iron

Primary base metal does not contain iron)
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 Classification
Metals can be divided into 2 groups
Metals
Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron Aluminum

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

Others Others
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 PRODUCTION OF FERROUS METAL
Raw Materials used in production of Pig Iron
1.Iron Ore – the most important material needed in the production of
iron, is a chemical sedimentary rock that people have used as an
important source of metal
1. Hematite – a reddish ore although may vary from blue, black to
purple and brick red. Contains 70% of iron
2. Limonite – Typical of the several oxide ore which contains more
or less chemically combined water. Color may vary from yellow to
dark brown, in pure state it contains about 60% iron
3. Magnetite – colored black, it contais highest percentage of iron
about 725 iron
4. Taconite – contains 32% iron
2.Coke – Acts as fuel in the blast furnace
3.Limestone – minerals which provide chemical reaction with the
impurities
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4.Air – used for burning the coke
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 8
Taconite
 Extraction of Iron
•Iron is found in iron oxide in the earth.
•Three primary iron ores: magnetite, hematite, taconite

•Iron is extracted using blast furnace

•Steps in extraction of iron
Ores is washed, crushed and mixed with
limestone and coke
The mixture is fed into the furnace and is then melted
Coke(a product of coal, mainly carbon) is
used to convert the iron oxides to iron

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 Extraction of Iron
Limestone helps to separate
the impurities from the metal
The liquid waste is known as slag
that floats on the molten iron
They are then tapped off (separated)

The iron produced is only about 90% to 95% pure.

The iron is then further refined using the

basic oxygen furnace and the electric arc
furnace to produce steel which is widely
used now.
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Blast Furnace

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 Extraction of Iron

A blast furnace

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Blast Furnace Temperatures

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• Ore, coke, and limestone are “charged” in layers into the
top of a blast furnace

• Ore is the source of the iron , Coke is the source of the

carbon (coke is derived from coal, by heating in a coking
oven)

• Limestone acts as a fluxing slag to remove impurities like

sulphur and silica

• 1100-deg. air blown into bottom of furnace, burns oxygen

off the iron oxides, causing temperature in furnace to get
above the melting point of iron (approx 3000 degrees)

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• Molten iron sinks to bottom of furnace,
where it is tapped off from furnace and
cast into large ingots called “pigs”…pigs
contain high carbon content (4% or so),
plus many impurities, such as sulphur and
silica which wasn’t removed by the
limestone.

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BLAST FURNACE – Used for the production of pig
iron
The Blast Furnace is basically a huge steel shell,
lined with fire bricks, some are as high as ten
storey building
1.Ore processing begins in the blast furnace.
2.A mixture of iron ore, coke and limestone is
brought to the top of the furnace and dumped into
it. The mixture is called charge.
3.Air that has been dried and heated to about 1250
deg, Fahrenheit is then blown into the furnace at
its base.
4.As the coke burn in this air, it generates heat and
gases which melts the charge.
5.Impurities in the charge are absorbed by
limestone and formed a substance called slag.
6.The temperature at the base of the furnace rises
to approximately 3500 deg. Fahrenheit and the
iron and slag in this area becomes liquefied.
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7. Since the molten slag is lighter than the molten
iron, it floats on the top of the iron.
8. Tapping or removing the molten iron from the
furnace is done every 4 to 5 hours. From 150 to300
tons of pig iron can be drawn off at a time
9. It is interesting to note that it takes almost 2 tons of
ore 1 ton of coke and nearly ½ ton of limestone and a
little less than 4 tons of air to make just 1 ton of pig
iron.
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 Principal processes for remelting or refining pig iron
Molten or cast pig iron

Puddling Bessemer Basic oxygen Open hearth Electric Air Cupola

process process process process process process

Aston
process Carbon and alloy Malleable iron
steel 0.1% - 2% C casting 2.0% – 2.5% C

Wrought iron Gray iron casting

< 0.1% C 2.5% - 2.75% C

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 Ferrous Metals - Iron and Steel
Pure iron is soft and ductile to be of much practical use.
BUT when carbon is added, useful set of alloys are produced.
They are known as carbon steel.

The amount of carbon will determine the hardness of the steel.

The carbon amount ranges from 0.1% to 4%.

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 Types of Steel
Steel

•Low carbon steel (mild steel)

•Medium carbon steel
•High carbon steel (tool steels)
•Cast iron
Alloy Steels

•Stainless steel
•High speed steel

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 Low Carbon Steel
Also known as mild steel
Contain 0.05% -0.32% carbon

Tough, ductile and malleable

Easily joined and welded
Poor resistance to corrosion
Often used a general purpose material

Nails, screws, car bodies,

Structural Steel used in the construction industry

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 Medium Carbon Steel
Contains 0.35% - 0.5% of carbon

Offer more strength and hardness BUT

less ductile and malleable

Structural steel, rails and garden tools

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 High Carbon Steel
Also known as ‘tool steel’
Contain 0.55%-1.5% carbon

Very hard but offers Higher

Strength Less ductile
and less malleable

Hand tools (chisels, punches)

Saw blades

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 Cast Iron
Contains 2%-4% of carbon

Very hard and brittle

Strong under compression
Suitable for casting [can be pour at a relatively
low temperature]

Engine block, engineer vices, machine parts

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 Cast Iron
White:
Hard and brittle, good wear resistance
Uses: rolling & crunching
Equipment

Grey:
Good compressive & tensile strength, machinability,
and vibration-damping ability
Uses: machine bases, crankshafts, furnace doors,
Engine Blocks

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Ductile:
High strength and ductility Uses: engine and machine parts

Malleable:
Heat-treated version of white cast iron

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 Stainless Steel
Steel alloyed with
chromium (18%), nickel (8%), magnesium (8%)
Hard and tough
Corrosion resistance
Comes in different grades
Sinks, cooking utensils, surgical instruments

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 Stainless Steels
Main types:

Ferritic chromium:
very formable, relatively weak;
used in architectural trim, kitchen range hoods, jewelry,
decorations, utensils Grades 409, 430, and other 400

Austentitic nickel-chromium:
non-magnetic, machinable, weldable, relatively weak;
used in architectural products, such as fascias, curtain
walls, storefronts, doors & windows, railings; chemical
processing, food utensils, kitchen applications.
series. Grades 301, 302, 303, 304, 316, and other 300
series.
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Martensitic chromium:
High strength, hardness, resistance to abrasion; used in
turbine parts, bearings, knives, cutlery and generally
Magnetic. Grades 17-4, 410, 416, 420, 440 and other
400 series

Maraging (super alloys):

High strength, high Temperature alloy used in structural
applications, aircraft components and are generally
magnetic. Alloys containing around 18% Nickel.
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 High Speed Steel
Medium Carbon steel alloyed with
Tungsten, chromium, vanadium

Very hard
Resistant to frictional heat even at high temperature
Can only be ground

Machine cutting tools (lathe and milling)

Drills

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 Heat Treatment
A process used to alter the properties and characteristics
of metals by heating and cooling.

Cold working  induce stress in metal  lead to

work hardening  prevent further work from taking place

Three stages of heat treatment

1. Heat the metal to the correct temperature
2. Keep it at that temperature for a the required
length of time (soaking)
3. Cool it in the correct way to give the desired
properties

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Heat Treatment

Types of heat treatment:

Annealing
Normalizing
Hardening
Tempering
Case hardening

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 Annealing
Annealing is the process whereby heat is introduced
to mobilise the atoms and relieve internal stress

After annealing, it allows the metal to be further shaped

It involves the re-crystallization of the distorted structure

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 Normalizing
This process is only confined to steel.
It is used to refine the grain due to work hardening

It involves the heating of the steel to just above

Its upper critical point.

Phase diagram of
Iron-Carbon

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 Hardening
Hardening is the process of increasing the hardness
of steel by adding a high amount of carbon
The degree of hardness depends on the amount of
carbon present in steel and the form in which it is
trapped during quenching.
Once hardened, the steel is resistant to wear but
is brittle and easily broken under load.

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 Tempering
Tempering is the process to reduce hardness and
brittleness slightly of a hardened steel workpiece.

It helps to produce a more elastic and tough steel

capable of retaining the cutting edge after tempering
Prior to tempering, the steel must be cleaned to
brightness with emery cloth so that oxide colour is visible
when reheated

Tempering temperature 1/α hardness

Tempering temperature α toughness

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 Tempering

Guidelines for tempering

Tempering of cold
chisel

230 C = 446 F
300 C = 572 F

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 Case Hardening
Case hardening is a process used with mild steel to
give a hard skin

The metal is heated to cherry red and is dipped in

Carbon powder. It is then repeated 2-3 more times before
Quenching the metal in water to harden the skin.

This allows the surface of mild steel to be able to

subject to wear but the soft core is able to subject to
Sudden shock e.g. the tool holders

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 Case Hardening - Carburizing
Carburizing involves placing the mild steel in box
packed with charcoal granules, heated to 950 º C (1742 oF)
and allowing the mild steel to soak for several hours.

It achieves the same purpose of case hardening

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 Carbon Steels Used for
Construciton

• Those steels in which the residual

elements (carbon, manganese, sulphur,
silicon, etc.) are controlled, but in which no
alloying elements are added to achieve
special properties.
A36 Carbon Structural Steel
• For years, the workhorse all-purpose steel
for nearly all structural “shapes” (beams,
channels, angles, etc.), as well as plates
and bars, has been:
 Wide Flanged Beams “W” shapes
• Recently (last few years), A36 has been
displaced as the steel of choice for the
major “shape” subcategory called wide-
flange beams, or “W” shapes. The
replacement steel is a high-strength, low-
alloy steel, known as A992 (see below).
For the other non-wide-flange beam
structural shapes, A36 remains the
predominant steel.
 Structural pipe and square tubing
• Pipe: A53 Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-
Dipped, Zinc- Coated Welded and
Seamless.
• Tubing: A500 Cold-Formed Welded and
Seamless Structural Tubing in Rounds
and Shapes.
• A501 Hot-Formed Welded and
Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing.
 High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels
• High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels:
• A group of steels with chemical compositions specially developed to impart
better mechanical properties and greater resistance to atmospheric
corrosion than are obtainable from conventional carbon structural steels.
Several particular steels used often in construction, and their ASTM
specifications, are:

• A572: High-Strength, Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Steels of Structural

Quality.

• A618: Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless High-Strength, Low-Alloy

Structural Tubing

• A913: High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steel Shapes of Structural Quality,

• Produced by Quenching and Self-Tempering Process

• A992: Steel for Structural Shapes for Use in Building Framing

This is the steel which has substantially replaced A36 steel for
Wide-flange structural shapes.
 Corrosion – Resistant Steels
• A242: High-Strength, Low-Alloy
Structural Steel.
• A588: High-Strength, Low-Alloy
Structural Steel with 50 ksi Minimum Yield
Point.
• A847: Cold-Formed Welded and
Seamless High-Strength, Low-Alloy
Structural Tubing with Improved
Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance.
1. Strength is a measure of a material,s ability to resist
application of load without collapse
a. Tensile strength is the ability of a material to resist
being pulled apart by opposing
forces.
b. Compressive strength is the ability of a material to
withstand pressure acting on a given
plane.
c. Fatigue strength is the ability of material to resist
repetitive stress.
d. Shear strength is the ability of the material to resist
cutting by two opposing forces

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2. Malleability is the ability of a material to withstand
heating or hammering into thin wire or
sheets
become permanently distorted or to deform in
compression without collapse.
3. Ductility is the ability of material to sustain large
permanent deformation indentation as drawing into
thin wire.
4. Hardness is the property of a material to resist cutting,
penetration or indentation
5. Elasticity is the property of material to resist permanent
change of form, recovering original form after removal
of load.
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6. Plasticity is the property of material that permit it,s
being easily moved or its ability to attain
large permanent distortion upon removal of load.
7. Toughness is the ability of material to withstand high
unit deformation.
8. Brittleness property of material to shatter or fracture
before much deformation is noticeable.
9. Stiffness is the property of material to resist
deformation.
10. Durability property of material to resist deterioration
in quality.
 

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Alloy Steel are steel that contain beside carbon it also contain some
alloying element to give special properties
1.Nickel is added to increase strength and toughness. It also helps to
prevent the steel from rusting and resist chemical attack
2.Manganese added to produce clean metal. It also add to the strength
of material and helps in heat treatment
3.Chromium add hardness, toughness and resistance to wear
4.Silicon make steel more elastic
5.Tungsten use with chromium, vanadium, molybdenum or manganese
to produce high speed steel
6.Molybdenum is added to increase strengthVanadium is added to
produce steel with an excellent shock resistance

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