THE DIFFERENT

FIELDS OF GENETICS
AND
METHODS AND
APPLICATIONS OF GENETICS
PREPARED BY: MADEL ORO
BSF 3-A
 OBJECTIVES

• To identify the different fields of genetics.

• Discuss the four major areas of genetics.
• Explain the methods and application of genetics.
 INTRODUCTION
A branch of science that deals with the study of heredity is called
genetics. It is how genes and traits are passed down from one
generation to the next. Genes are how living organisms inherit features
or traits from their ancestor. There are four main branches of genetics: (1)
mendelian (transmission genetics),the study of the transmission of traits
from one generation to the next; (2) molecular genetics, the study of the
chemical structure of genes and how they operate at the molecular level;
(3) population genetics, the study of the variation of genes between and
within population; (4) qualitative genetics, conceptually the most difficult
because the effective of individual of gene can be seldom to be seen.
 DIFFERENT FIELDS OF GENETICS
1. Behavioral genetics- examines the role of genetics in animal (including human) behavior.
2. Classical genetics – consist of technique and methodologies of genetics that predate the advent of
molecular biology.
3. Conservation genetics – interdisciplinary science that aims to apply genetic methods to the conservation
and restoration of biodiversity.
4. Ecological genetics – study of genetics in natural population.
5. Genomics – discipline in genetics concerning the study of the genomes of organisms.
6. Human genetics – study of heredity and variations in the humans.
7. Population genetics – genetics of the different populations of animal and plants.
8. Molecular genetics – study of structure and function of genes at the molecular level.
9. Cytogenetics – study the structure and function of the cell , especially the chromosome.
10. Qualitative genetics - conceptually the most difficult because the effect of individual genes can seldom
be seen or measured and many genes contribute to the expression of traits.
 FOUR MAJOR AREAS OF GENETICS
1. Mendelian Or Classical Genetics (Transmission Genetics)
– Traditional approach of heredity, the transmission of traits from
one generation to the next. Characteristics are inherited through
the random combination of certain factors in the parents gametes.
Gregor Mendel- Father of genetics.
-(1865) discovered the existence of genes.
-work on pea plants
- Discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.
1. Law of Segregation
2. Law of Independent Assortment
3. Law of Dominance
1. Law Of Segregation – Sexually reproducing diploid organisms
have 2 alleles of each gene. These two alleles segregate from each
other to form gametes that contain only 1 allele of each gene.
Allele- different forms of genes.
Dominant- the parental type found in the progeny.
- allele masks the expression of phenotype (appearance
of traits or characteristics which can be seen)
Recessive- alternative characteristics that is not observed.
- can be covered up by dominant allele
Genotype – set of genes in DNA, complete heritable identity.
Genetic crosses:
a. Pure Breeding Lines- (Parental plants reproduce offspring all
with the same characteristics as themselves).
b. Monohybrid cross – hybrid of two individuals with homozygous
genotypes which result in the opposite phenotype for a certain genetic
trait. Responsible for the inheritance of one gene.
- genetic disorders and lethal genes.
-Sickle cell trait: recessive disorder
- Huntington’s disease: dominant disorder
- Dwarfism: dominant trait
2. Law Of Independent Assortment- Different genes on different
. chromosomes segregate into gametes independently of each other.
c. Dihybrid crosses- is a cross between two individuals with two observed
traits that are controlled by two distinct genes. Two combination of genes.
Ex. Hybridization of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niluticus) and blue tilapia
(O. aureus).
3. Law 0f Dominance- When parent with pure, contrasting traits are crossed together,
only one form of trait appears in the next generation.
- alleles can be dominant or recessive.
- recessive traits are always dominated or masked by the dominant trait.
Diploid- has paired chromosomes (homologous)
Haploid- have only one copy of each chromosome.
• Incomplete dominance – phenomenon in which true-breeding parents crossed to
produced an intermediate offspring (also known as heterozygous). Only one allele in the
genotype is seen in the phenotype.
• Co- dominance – both alleles are simultaneously expressed in the heterozygote. Both
alleles in the genotype are seen in the phenotype.
Sex Chromosome
-Human male has two sex chromosome, the X and Y (XY).
-female has two X chromosome (XX).
Autosomes are non-sex chromosome.
X-linked Genes
-gene is present on the X chromosome ,but not on the
Y chromosome is called X-linked.
-genes on either the X or the Y have unusual inheritance
patterns is called sex-linked.
Wild-type Versus Mutant
Wild-type phenotype is the most common ,or at least the
generally accepted standard phenotype of an organism.
Mutant alleles are usually recessive.
 MOLECULAR GENETICS
2. Molecular Genetics- deal with the structure and function of genes
in molecular level. The molecular geneticist studies on
replication and mutation.
• Nucleotide
-Monomer units of DNA and RNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Double helix, two strands of polynucleotides must come together.
-All inheritable traits of living organism are determined by their
genetic material, the ‘genome’ a long nucleic acid.
-rule of base pairing (A-T) and (G-C).
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
-Create proteins via translation. Carries genetic information that is
translated by ribosomes into various protein necessary for cellular processes.
• DNA Replication
-Process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied
to produce two identical DNA molecule.
Three mode of DNA replication:
1. Semi- conservative replication – two strands of DNA unwind
from each other , each act as a template for synthesis of new
complementary strand (results in two DNA molecules with one original
strand and one new strand).
2. Conservativee replication – results in one molecule that consists of
both original DNA strand and another molecule that consists of two new
strands( exactly the same sequence as the original molecule).
3. Dispersive replication – results in two dna molecules that are
mixtures , or “hybrids” of parental and daughter dna. Individual
strand is a patchwork of original and new DNA.
• MUTATION

-change in the genetic information that can result to the

change in phenotype.
Types of mutations:
1. Base Substitution -single base substitution are called
point mutations which causes sickle cell disease.

Two types:

Transition –occurs when a purine is substituted with

another purine or when a pyrimidine is substituted with

another pyrimidine.

Transversion- when a purine is substituted for a pyrimidine

Source : Genome Research Limited
or a pyrimidine replaces a purine.
• Point mutation that occur in DNA sequences encoding proteins are either :
Silent – code for the same amino acid
Missence – code for a different amino acid
- depends on amino acid either conservative or nonconservative.
conservative - very similar to original , little effect on
resultant protein structure
nonconservative - very different structure, bad resultant protein structure
Nonsense – code for a stop, cause to shorten or nonfunctional protein.
2. Deletions - Resulting in a frameshift, results when one or more base
pairs are lost from the DNA
- Deletion of one codon or more results protein missing or
- one or more amino acid.
3. Insertions – insertion of additional base pairs may lead to frameshift
depend on whether or not multiples of three base pairs.
 POPULATION GENETICS
• Population Genetics – studies on the changes in the relative frequency of
gene
in the population through time.
Population - a group of individuals of the same species that live within the
same area.
Factors that alter allele:
• Natural selection - is the adaptation of organisms to the environment.
• Mutations – is the classic source of genetic variation, generating new
alleles in a population.
• Gene flow – transfer of alleles from one population to another due to the
movement of
fertile individuals.
• Genetic drift- is the change in gene frequency due to an event of random
selection of individuals, usually in small populations. It can cause alleles
permanently disappear from a populations, reducing their genetic variability.
Drift occurs in two ways:
1.Founder effect- decrease of genetic diversity due to a new population
permanentlyd by few individuals.
2.Bottleneck effect – is the reduction of population size by environmental
events.
 QUALITATIVE GENETICS
• Qualitative genetics – conceptually the most difficult because the effect of individual
genes can seldom be seen or measured and many genes contribute to the expression
of traits.
- Qualitative traits are often governed by one or few genes, indicating that they are
inherited traits.
Monogenetic – pattern of inheritance for qualitative trait which means traits is only
influences by a single gene with major effect.
 METHODS OF GENETICS
1. Animal Husbandry – agricultural practice of
breeding and raising livestock.
2. Plant Breeding – make use of plant experiment
to know how a trait is passed from one
generation to generation.
Animal Husbandry and
3. Multiple Locus Testing – Fishery(Sources: India and
World)
4. Pedigree Analysis – analysis of the members of
family. Pictorial representation of the members
of family.
5. Karyotyping – detect the number of
chromosomes and chromosomal abnormalities.
 APPLICATIONS OF GENETICS
1. Genetic Counseling – is the process by which patients
or relatives , at risk of an inherited disorder, are advised
of the consequences and the nature of the disorder, the
probability of developing or transmitting it, and the
options open to them in management and family
planning.
2. Field of Medicine
ex. Gene Therapy – use of DNA as a pharmaceutical
agent to treat disease. DNA can be used to supplement or
alter genes within an individual’s cells as a therapy to treat
disease. Common form of gene therapy involves using
DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene in order to
replace a mutated gene.
 SUMMARY
Genetics is the study of heredity. There are four main branches of
genetics: mendelian (transmission genetics),the study of the transmission
of traits from one generation to the next; molecular genetics, the study of
the chemical structure of genes and how they operate at the molecular
level; population genetics, the study of the variation of genes between and
within population; qualitative genetics, conceptually the most difficult
because the effective of individual of gene can be seldom to be seen. The
methods of genetics described in different ways such as animal husbandry
, plant breeding , multiple locus testing , pedigree analysis and
karyotyping. The applications of genetics in our day-to-day living are very
essential nowadays even in the passed as it used in genetic counseling
and in the field of medicine .
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THANK YOU!