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Biostatistics

DR. SHREYA WANI

IST YEAR PG
Contents
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 What is statistics?
 Biostatistics
 Uses of Biostatistics
 Data
 Sample & Sampling designs
 Presentation of data
 Measures of central tendency
 Measures of variability
 Probability
 Statistical Significance (Tests of significance )
 Correlation & Regression
 Conclusion
 References
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INTRODUCTION

 ‘Statistic’ or ‘Datum’ – in singular, it is measured or counted fact or

piece of information.
 ‘Statistics’ or ‘Data’ – Plural of the same , stated in more than
one figures.
 Statistic -Statista (Italian word)- Statesman
Statistik ( German word )–political state
 John Graunt (1620-1674) – Is the Father of health statistics.
DEFINITION 4

Statistics:

 Principles and methods for collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of numerical data.

Biostatistics:

 Tool of statistics applied to the data that is derived

from biological science.
Why do we need biostatistics ? 5

We need biostatistics to;

 Define normalcy

 Test the difference b/w two population

 Study the correlation or association b/w two or more

attributes
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 To evaluate the efficacy of vaccines, sera etc by control

studies

 Locate , define & measure extent of disease

 Evaluate achievements

 Fix priorities
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The five fundamental processes involved in organization of
oral health care services.

1. Acquisition of information.

2. Dissemination of information.

3. Application of knowledge and skill.

4. Judgement or evaluation.

5. Administration.
Uses of biostatistics: 8

 Assess the state of oral health in community

 Indicate basic factors underlying state of oral health

 Determine success or failure of specific oral health care

programmes or to evaluate the programme action

 Promote health legislation and in creating administrative

standards for oral health.
DATA 9

Data – collective recording of observations.

Variable- characteristic which varies from one person to another.

Sources;

1. Experiments

2. Surveys

3. Records
TYPES OF DATA 10

Depending upon the source of collection;

 Primary data : Interview

Examination

Questionnaire

 Secondary data : Records, Census data

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Data can be of two types

 Qualitative ( discrete data )

Subjects with same characteristics are counted
(Remains same)
Eg deaths, sex, malocclusion.

 Quantitative (Continuous data )

Characteristic varies (variable ) are counted- frequency
varies
Eg. Height, arch length.
SAMPLE 12

 Population – Group of all individuals who are the focus of

investigation.

 Sample – Group of sampling units (individuals) that form part of

population generally selected so as to be representative of the
population whose variables are under study

 Sampling units – Individuals who form the focus of study

 Sampling frame or sampling list - List of sampling units

SAMPLING METHODS 13

A. Probability Sampling

 Random selection of the sample is done

 All units in population have equal probabilities (chances )of

being chosen in a sample.
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 Types;

1. Simple Random sampling

2. Stratified Random sampling

3. Cluster sampling

4. Systematic sampling

5. Multistage sampling

6. Multiphase sampling
B. Non Probability sampling 15

 (Deliberate /Purposive)

 Units in the sample are collected with no specific

probability structure.

 Types;

1. Convenient / purposive sampling

Sample size Formulae 16

 Formulae used in determining sample size.

 n = z2 σ p2 /e2 : Z = constant,

σ = SD of population ,

e = acceptable error

 n = Z2 pq / e2 p = Sample proportion
ERRORS IN SAMPLING 17

 Sampling errors

1. Faulty sampling design.

2. Small size of sample.

  Non-sampling errors

1. Coverage errors.

2. Observational errors.

3. Processing errors.
PRESENTATION OF DATA 18

  Tables

 Diagrams/graphs
RULES FOR TABLE 19
1. Relevant title

2. No of Class interval 5- 25

3. Class interval of equal width

4. Well defined class limits

5. Rows & columns clear

6. Units of measurements specified

7. Source of data mentioned

8. Groups tabulated in order

9. Reason for omission of certain data mentioned

DIAGRAMS / FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
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DRAWINGS
  It is One of the most convincing & appealing ways of data
presentation. It is Easy to study relative value of frequencies and
gives “bird’s eye view”

 Basic rules are :

 Self explanatory title

 Value of variable on x-axis , frequency on y- axis

 Diagram clear, simple & consistent with data

 Scale of presentation should be mentioned

COMMON DIAGRAMS 21

A. Quantitative/ continuous / measured data

1. Histogram

2. Frequency polygon

3. Frequency curve

4. Line chart/ graph

5. Cumulative frequency diagram

6. Scatter / dot diagram

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B. Qualitative/ discrete / counted data

1. Bar diagram

2. Pie/sector diagram

3. Pictogram

4. Map diagram / spot diagram

BAR GRAPH 23

 Represent only one variable

 Represent qualitative data

MULTIPLE BAR GRAPH 24

• Compare qualitative data with

respect to single variable

Multiple bar graph showing protein content of common

foods in g per 100 g of edible portion
 
PROPORTIONAL BAR DIAGRAM 25

 Represents a qualitative data

 Comparison of data

 Populations or groups compared with

respect to single variable

 Compare only the proportion of Area-wise prevalence of caries (Rural /Urban)

subgroups between major groups of

observations.
COMPONENT BAR DIAGRAM 26

 Represent both no of cases in a group & subgroup simultaneously

 Division of bars proportional to no of cases in subgroups

PIE DIAGRAM / SECTOR 27

DIAGRAM
 Show percentage breakdown for a
qualitative data

 Degrees of angle denote frequency

( area of sector)

 Angle = class frequency/total

observations x 360 Grading of malocclusion

 Cannot be used to represent 2 0r

more data sets
LINE DIAGRAM / GRAPH 28

 Simplest mean to represent data

 Useful in representing trends over

time

 X –axis represent time

 Y –axis , value of any variable under

study
HISTOGRAM 29

 Depict quantitative data of continuous type

 Represents frequency distribution

 X axis-size of the observation

 Y axis- frequency
FREQUENCY POLYGON 30

 Represents frequency distributions

 Comparative analysis

 Area diagram developed over a

histogram

 Point marked over mid point of class

interval
FREQUENCY CURVE 31

 Represents frequency distributions of

quantitative data

 Large no of observations , small group

intervals

 Continuous graph giving relative

frequencies
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY 32

DIAGRAM
 Graph of cumulative relative frequency
distribution

 Ordinary frequency distribution table needs

conversion to relative cumulative frequency table

 Cumulative frequency is total frequency, obtained

by cumulating the frequency of previous classes.
SCATTER/DOT DIAGRAM 33

 Frequencies of two variables are

represented.

 Graphic presentation to show nature of

correlation

 Characters read on base and vertical axis

and perpendicular drawn from these
readings meet to give one scatter point.
CARTOGRAMS OR SPOT MAP 34

 Used to show geographical distribution of frequencies of

character
PICTOGRAM OR PICTURE 35

DIAGRAM
 To impress the frequency of occurrence of health related
events
MEASURES OF CENTRAL 36

TENDENCY
 Value or parameter which serves as single estimate of a series of
data

 Summarizes the data

 Enables comparison

 One central value around which all other observations are

dispersed

 Concentration of all observations around the central value.

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 Types

1. MEAN

2. MEDIAN

3. MODE
 ARITHMATIC AVERAGE 38

X = W Xi
Mean = sum of all the observations n
total no of observation
Example;
ESR OF 7 PATIENTS IS
 For grouped data : 7,5,3,4,6,4,5 mins

Mean = total ( value of variable x frequency) MEAN (X) = 7+5+3+4+6+4+5

total frequency 7
= 4.86
 For grouped data with range:
Mean = total { md pt of class interval x frequency
total frequency
MEDIAN 39
 Arrange the observations in ascending or descending order. The middle
observation is the median.

 Examples:
 DMFT of 7 children is 7,4,5,6,7,3,4
arranged in order = 3,4,4,5,6,7,7
median is 5
 DMFT of 8 children is 10,9,4,5,8,3,7,6
arranged in order = 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
median = 6+7 = 6.5
2
MODE 40

That value which in a series of observation occurs with

greatest frequency

Mode = 3 median – 2 mean

 Example:

1,2,2,8,5,2,7,3,2

Mode Is 2
MEASURES OF LOCATION – 41
PERCENTILES
 Centiles or percentiles : values in series of observations arranged in
ascending order of magnitude which divide the distribution into 100
equal parts

 Median is 50 centile

 Quartiles : 3 in no . Median is Q2

 Quintiles : 4 in no , divide in 5 parts

 Deciles : 9 in no

 Median = Q2 , D5 or 50% (P 50)

APPLICATION OF PERCENTILES 42

 Location of percentiles give an idea about frequency

distribution

 Preparation of standards

 Comparison of samples
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 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY 44
 Dispersion is the degree of spread or variation of the variable about a
central value. 

 Uses :

 Determine reliability of an average

 Serve as a basis of control of variability

 Comparison of two or more series

 Facilitate further statistical analysis

 A good measure of dispersion should be simple , easy to compute ,
based on all items , amenable for further analysis and not affected
by extreme values
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 Of individual observations -

1. Range

2. Interquartile range

3. Mean deviation

4. Standard deviation

5. Coefficient of variation
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 Variability of samples-

1. Standard error of mean

2. Standard error of difference b/w 2 means

3. Standard error of proportion

4. Difference b/w 2 proportions

5. Standard error of correlation coefficient

6. Standard deviation of regression coefficient

RANGE 47

 Difference b/w value of smallest & largest item

 Range defines the normal limits of a biologic

characteristic

 Simple to calculate

 Not based on all items

 Subjected to fluctuations

Eg. 3,4,4,5,6,7,7 RANGE= 7-4 = 3

STANDARD DEVIATION 48

 Root mean square deviation

 It is the measure of differences of each observations

from mean of all observations

 Greater the standard deviation greater will be magnitude

of dispersion from the mean

 Small S.D higher degree of uniformity of observations

Calculation of S.D 49

 Calculate the mean = x

 Diff of each observation from mean (deviation)

d = xi – x

 Square these = d²

 Total these = Σ d²

 Divide this by no of observations minus 1, variance = d²/

(n-1)
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Square root of this variance is SD Σ d²/ (n-1)

Square root of this variance is SD Σ d²/ (n-1)

For a grouped data = SD = ∑ (Xi x)2f

N -1
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THANK YOU