III ECE – I

15A05402
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COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Day -3
By
Mr. K Suresh Kumar Reddy
Asst. Professor, Department of CSE
 Basic operational concepts

To perform a given task an appropriate program consisting of a list of

instructions is stored in the memory.

Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the

processor, which executes the specified operations. Data to be stored
are also stored in the memory.
 Examples: - Add LOCA, R0

This instruction adds the operand at memory location LOCA, to

operand in register R0 & places the sum into register.

This instruction requires the performance of several steps,

1. First the instruction is fetched from the memory into the processor.
2. The operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents of R0
3. Finally the resulting sum is stored in the register R0

In some other type of computers, these two types of operations are

performed by separate instructions for performance reasons.

Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
The components of the processor are:

Memory Unit: It is an essential unit of every computer which is responsible for storing all the
essential data.

Control Unit: It is a unit that issues various control signals which are essential in controlling
the activities of all other computer units.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit: It is a unit that is responsible for performing various arithmetical
and logical operations.

MAR: It is responsible for addressing various locations in the memory.

MDR: It is responsible for reading/writing data from/to the Memory.

PC: It stores the address of the next instruction to be executed.

IR: It stores the instruction which is under execution.

General Purpose Registers: These are the registers which are responsible for storing
frequently required data related to program execution temporarily.
 Bus Structures
A Group of lines that serves as a connecting path for
several devices is called a bus

A bus is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are

used to send control signals and data between the
processor and other components.
 Bus Structures
Three types of bus are used.
Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor
to other components such as primary storage and
input/output devices. The address bus is unidirectional.

Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other
components. The data bus is bidirectional.

Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to

other components. The control bus also carries the clock's
pulses. The control bus is unidirectional.
Bus Structures
Bus Structure
 But Structures
The frequency of the pulses is known as clock speed. Clock
speed is measured in hertz (Hz)

A common approach is to include buffer registers with

the devices to hold the information during transfer.
Data Types
Data Types
Data Types
Data Types
Some examples of Conversion from one
form to other:
Binary to octal
Binary to hexa decimal
 Topic-Software
is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer
how to work

System Software: A system software is usually a program residing

in main memory which is capable of organizing various
components of a computer.

System software is a collection of various programs, providing a

platform to the user through which he can easily interact with the
system. Examples of system software include operating systems,
text editors, compilers etc
Functions of System Software:

1.It facilitates execution of user developed programs by including various libraries

and packages etc.
2. It controls various input and output activities.
3. It accepts and processes various commands provided by user.
4.It performs memory management functions.
5.It manages all the application programs and accordingly stores and retrieves
them.
6. It converts high level language programs into machine level language (binary).
7.It controls various programs such as video games, where there is strong user
intervention. It also executes user written application programs.
8.It schedules various processes in accordance to their priorities.
9. It organizes all the peripheral devices attached to a given system.
10. It prevents system failures and unauthorized accessing of the system by
providing authorization codes such as user names and passwords etc.
Text Editor:

Text editor is a system software which provide feasibility to users

while typing data belonging to several application programs.

These editors receive several commands entered by the user and

accordingly execute them.

Several new editors provide facilities such as highlighting

inappropriate sentences, changing colour of misspelled words,
underlining the sentences which are not obeying the syntax etc
 Topic- Language Translator
A language translator is a type of system software that translates a program written
in a second, third or higher-generation language into machine language.

Language translators are of three types.

They are, (a) Assemblers (b) Compilers (c) Interpreters.

(a) Assembler:

 An assembler is a system utility program responsible for converting

assembly language instructions into machine language instruction.
Assemblers are not only able of converting the instruction but ate
also capable of generating error messages.

 Examples of assembler include 8085 assembler, 8086 assembler etc.

(b) Compiler:

A compiler is a system utility program responsible for converting

high-level instructions into machine language instructions.

All the instructions are converted at a time. Compilers are capable

of generating error messages encountered during translation.

Examples of compilers are Pascal compile; C compiler, COBOL

compiler etc.
(c) Interpreter:

 Interpreter is similar to that of a compiler but the difference

arises in their conversion format.

 Interpreter interprets every individual instruction and executes it

immediately rather than executing entire program at once.

 In case of any error, the program execution is halted until the

error is rectified.

 The interpreter needs to be stored in the memory till the

program-execution is completed. Interpreter is useful while
debugging because it displays the error message soon after
interpreting individual instruction.
 Topic- Loader

Loader is a program which is responsible for performing the loading

function i.e., it brings executable file into a given memory location.

The loader carries out four functions.

1.It loads machine as well as data instruction into its specified

memory location.

2. It assigns load time storage memory area to the program.

3.It relocates the program so that it can be executed appropriately.

4. It links two separate object programs with each other.

There are two different types of loaders.

(a)Absolute Loader: Absolute loader loads the instruction at the

exact location as specified in the header. If the specified memory
location is not available, then execution of the program cannot be
carried out further till the memory space gets free.

(b)Relocating Loader: In this loader, program is loaded into the

memory location by modifying the addresses of the memory
location as needed in order to guarantee accurate referencing. The
responsibility of locating the file in the memory lies with the
operating system and not file's header. It works very efficiently, but
it also has an overhead of calculating relative offsets which causes a
delay
 Topic – Linker

A linker refers to a program or a software that takes one or more

compiler objects and combines them together to form a single
executable program.

This program is stored on a disk with `.exe' extension.

To run this program, the loader must firstly load all the program's
instructions into the primary memory and then direct the CPU to
begin the instruction execution starting from the first instruction
onwards.
 Topic - Operating System

An operating system is a software or computer program that controls the computer

hardware. It acts as an interface or an intermediate between the user and hardware. It
provides platform for running application program
 Role of operating System
(i) Operating system as a resource manager.
(ii) Operating system as a user/computer interface
 Functions of Operating System

1. Resource Management: operating system is also called as resource allocator. This is

because, it responsible for controlling and allocating various hardware resources (CPU,
printer, power etc), communication resources, CPU time, memory space, file-storage space
etc., to users. it also executes a user program efficiently.

2. Process management: An operating system is also responsible for managing process

execution. A multiprogramming operating system runs multiple processes concurrently.

3. File Management: An operating system is also responsible for managing the file name,
directory name etc. It also provides access properties like file size, type, modified etc.

4. Memory Management: Operating system also manages memory needed for executing
the user's program.

5. Communication management: operating system provides networking services like Local

Area Networking (LAN) and Wide Area. Networking (WAN) services.

6. Security Management: Operating system provides various security services to protect the
data from illegitimate software attacks. Antivirus software's, firewall
 Services provided by the OS

1.The OS helps the programmers during the process of program development by providing
various services such as editors, debuggers etc

2. The OS performs certain scheduling tasks such as loading instructions and data into the
main memory, initializing the I/O devices

3. Each I/O device requires specific instructions or control signals for their operation which
makes the process of accessing I/O devices difficult

4. The OS in a multi-user environment that controls the access to the files by providing a
protection mechanism

5. The OS (in shared/public system) is responsible for controlling the access to the system or
to some system resources thereby protecting the resources and data from unauthorized
users

6. OS is capable for verifying certain internal and external hardware errors such as a device
failure or malfunction, a memory error etc

7. A good OS can monitor certain performance parameters such as response time in order to
improve the overall performance of the system
 Types of Operating Systems:

1. Single-user Operating System

2. Multi-user Operating System

Example: Linux, Unix, Windows 2000, Ubuntu, Mac OS etc.,

3. Multi-process Operating System

Tandy/Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 16 desktop computer

4. Batch Processing System

IBM's MVS Operating system. MVS has no real user interface.

5. Multiprogramming

Advantages of multiprogramming are,

(i)CPU utilization is high (ii) Higher job throughput.

Throughput is the amount of work done in a given time interval.

Throughput = Amount of time CPU is utilized / Total time for executing the program

A computer running excel and firefox browser

6. Time Sharing System

a mainframe computer
7. Real Time System

Hard Real Time Operating Systems necessarily

perform the task within the given specified deadline
Examples include air traffic control, vehicle
subsystems control and Nuclear power plant
control.

Soft Real Time Operating Systems are the RTOS

that perform task almost in the specified deadline

Examples of Soft Time Operating Systems include

multimedia transmission and reception,
networking, telecom (cellular) networks, web sites
and services and computer games.

MTOS, Lynx and RTX.

8. Distributed System

Windows server 2003

Windows server 2008
Windows server 2012
Ubuntu
Sharing of Processor Time between User Program & OS Sub routines