The physics team of : -

present
physics learning outcome : -
Universal Gravitation
Concepts:

 ‣A. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

‣B. Gravitation constant.
‣C. Gravitational field
‣D. Field Force
‣E. Inverse square law
‣F. Launching velocity of satellites.
‣G. Orbital velocity of satellites.
Introduction : -

 Physicists like to study seemingly unrelated phenomena to show that a

relationship can be found if the phenomena are examined closely enough.
 This search for unification has been going on for centuries. In 1665, the 23-
year-old Isaac Newton made a basic contribution to physics when he
showed that the force that holds the Moon in its orbit is the same force that
makes an apple fall.
 We take this knowledge so much for granted now that it is not easy for us
to comprehend the ancient belief that the motions of earthbound bodies
and heavenly bodies were different in kind and were governed by different
laws.
 Newton concluded not only that Earth attracts both apples and the Moon
but also that every body in the universe attracts every other body; this
tendency of bodies to move toward one another is called gravitation.
What do you know about the universal
gravitation ?

Take 3
minutes
Definition : -
 Gravitation : is the weakest of the four fundamental forces
 According to this data :
Other definitions : -

 Also is can be defined as the attraction between two masses

  The force that pulls things down.
 The force that causes objects to “fall” (all objects
are PULLED to the CENTER of a mass)
 Example : on Earth is the
 (1) same force that causes the Earth to continuously orbit
the Sun, and in turn
 (2) the Sun to revolve around the center of the Milky Way
Galaxy.
A. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

 -  Isaac Newton compared the acceleration of the moon

to the acceleration of objects on earth.
 -  Believing that gravitational forces were responsible for
each, Newton was able to draw an important conclusion
about the dependence of gravity upon distance.
 - This comparison led him to conclude that the force of
gravitational attraction between the Earth and other
objects is inversely proportional to the distance
separating the earth's center from the object's center.
  But distance is not the only variable affecting the magnitude of a
gravitational force. Consider Newton's famous equation :

 Newton knew that the force that caused the apple's acceleration
(gravity) must be dependent upon the mass of the apple.
 And since the force acting to cause the apple's downward
acceleration also causes the earth's upward acceleration (Newton's
third law), that force must also depend upon the mass of the earth.
 So for Newton, the force of gravity acting between the earth and
any other object is directly proportional to the mass of the earth,
directly proportional to the mass of the object, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance that separates the
centers of the earth and the object
 The UNIVERSAL Gravitation Equation

 - But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth.

Newton's law of universal gravitation is about the universality of gravity.
 -  Newton's place in the Gravity Hall of Fame is not due to his discovery of
gravity, but rather due to his discovery that gravitation is universal.
 - ALL objects attract each other with a force of gravitational attraction. 
 - Gravity is universal. 
 - This force of gravitational attraction is directly proportional to the mass
of the earth, directly proportional to the mass of the object, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance that separates their centers.
 -  Newton's conclusion about the magnitude of
gravitational forces is summarized symbolically as :

WHERE
 How to derive dimensional formula of the gravitational
constant ?
1) the dimensional formula of
The equation
2)
3)
So : -
So you must know these next relationships : -

This force of gravitational attraction is : -

directly proportional to the mass of the earth,
directly proportional to the mass of the object,
inversely proportional to the square of the distance that
separates their centers.
Here we will make a comparison between
the effect of MASS and  the square of the
separation DISTANCE on the gravitation
force.
 The mass

 Since the gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass of

both interacting objects, more massive objects will attract each other
with a greater gravitational force. So as the mass of either object
increases, the force of gravitational attraction between them also
increases.
 If the mass of one of the objects is doubled, then the force of gravity
between them is doubled.
 If the mass of one of the objects is tripled, then the force of gravity
between them is tripled.
 If the mass of both of the objects is doubled, then the force of gravity
between them is quadrupled; and so on.
 the square of the separation DISTANCE

 Since gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the

separation distance between the two interacting objects, more
separation distance will result in weaker gravitational forces.
 So as two objects are separated from each other, the force of
gravitational attraction between them also decreases.
 If the separation distance between two objects is doubled (increased
by a factor of 2), then the force of gravitational attraction is decreased
by a factor of 4 (2 raised to the second power) (
 If the separation distance between any two objects is tripled
(increased by a factor of 3), then the force of gravitational attraction is
decreased by a factor of 9 (3 raised to the second power) (
 Thinking Proportionally About Newton's Equation

 The proportionalities expressed by Newton's universal law of gravitation are

represented graphically by the following illustration.
 Observe how the force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the two
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of separation.
  And that is a video link that has more
explanation to be clear:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ah8jt8k3lAE

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TEhLOuiziSA

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZZGJfFf8XI
 ‣B. Gravitation constant.
 G is called the constant of universal gravitation. The value of G was unknown in
Newton’s day, but experiments have since determined the value to be as follows:

The gravitational constant is the proportionality constant used in Newton’s Law of

Universal Gravitation, and is commonly denoted by G. This is different from g,
which denotes the acceleration due to gravity. In most texts, we see it expressed
as:
 The discovery of the gravitational constant : -

 The first person who successfully measured it was the English

physicist, Henry Cavendish, who measured the very tiny force
between two lead masses by using a very sensitive torsion
balance. It should be noted that, after Cavendish, although
there have been more accurate measurements, the
improvements on the values (i.e., being able to obtain values
closer to Newton’s G) have not been really substantial. 
 Looking at the value of G, we see that when we multiply it with
the other quantities, it results in a rather small force. Let’s
expand that value to give you a better idea on how small it
really is: 0.00000000006673  
 ‣C. Gravitational field

 Scientists developed a theory of fields to explain how gravity

and other field forces operate. According to this theory,
masses create a gravitational field in space. (Similarly,
charged objects generate an electric field.)
 A gravitational force is an interaction between a mass and the
gravitational field created by other masses.
 When you raise a ball to a certain height above Earth, the ball
gains potential energy. Where is this potential energy stored?
… According to field theory, the gravitational energy is stored
in the gravitational field itself.
 At any point, Earth’s gravitational field can be described by
the gravitational field strength, abbreviated g.
 . The gravitational field (g) is a vector with a magnitude of
g that points in the direction of the gravitational force.
 Gravitational field strength equals free-fall acceleration
 Consider an object that is free to accelerate and is acted on
only by gravitational force. According to Newton’s second law,.
As seen earlier, is defined as , where is gravitational force.
 Thus, the value of g at any given point is equal to the
acceleration due to gravity.
 For this reason, on Earth’s surface.
 Although gravitational field strength and free-fall
acceleration are equivalent, they are not the same thing.
For instance, when you hang an object from a spring
scale, you are measuring gravitational field strength.
 Because the mass is at rest (in a frame of reference fixed
to Earth’s surface), there is no measurable acceleration.
 Gravitational field strength rapidly decreases as the
distance from Earth increases.
 We can now refine our definition of weight as mass by gravitational field strength.
The two definitions are mathematically equivalent, but our new definition helps to
explain why your weight changes with your location in the universe.

Combining this equation with the definition for gravitational field strength yields the
following expression for :

 This equation shows that gravitational field strength depends only on mass
and distance. Thus, as your distance from Earth’s center increases, the
value of g decreases, so your weight also decreases.
 On the surface of any planet, the value of g, as well as your weight, will
depend on the planet’s mass and radius, where: -

 mass of the planet

And that is a video link that has more explanation to be clear:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4a4p9bW9tRI
 ‣D. Field Force
Definition : -
 A force field is a force that can act on objects within large or small distances
without "touching" these objects They are sometimes called "action-at-a-
distance forces"
 Ex 1: earth's rotation around the earth is a field force; the sun didn't give the
earth a push to rotate around it! instead the sun's gravitational field did it.
 Ex 2: the magnetic field attracts iron particles to it
 Ex 3: electrical field
 A force field is a map of the force felt over a particular area of space. To
explain this better, we should first describe a field. While it might sound
mysterious, a field, in physics, is really just a map of a particular quantity
over an area of space.
 ‣E. Inverse square law

 Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions
without a limit to its range will obey the inverse square law.
 This comes from strictly geometrical considerations.
 The intensity of the influence at any given radius r is the source
strength divided by the area of the sphere.
 Being strictly geometric in its origin, the inverse square law applies to
diverse phenomena.
 Point sources of gravitational force, electric field,gravity, light, sound
or radiation obey the inverse square law. It is a subject of continuing
debate with a source such as a skunk on top of a flag pole; will it's
smell drop off according to the inverse square law?
 Inverse Square Law, Gravity

 As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, the 
gravity field can be put in the form shown below, showing that the
acceleration of gravity, g, is an expression of the intensity of the gravity
field.
 ‣F. Launching satellites.

 Launching a satellite into orbit requires consideration of a

number of major science ideas.
 These include : -
 1)Gravity.
 2)Circular Motion.
 3)Atmospheric Drag.
 Atmospheric drag

 Satellites need to be placed in orbit high above the Earth’s

atmosphere so that the drag of the atmospheric gases
 doesn’t make the orbiting satellite slow down.
 A good minimum height for a satellite is 100 km above the
Earth’s surface.
 This is the official definition of space (the Kármán line)
because there are so few gas particles above this altitude.
 However, most satellites are placed into orbit between 500
and 1500 km.
 There is gravity in space

 A lot of people think that there is no gravity above the Earth’s

atmosphere.
 The truth is that gravity keeps pulling an object towards the
center of the Earth even if the object is far above the Earth’s
atmosphere.
 The force of gravity pulling you towards Earth at an altitude of
100 km compared to that acting on you if you were on a 10 m
high diving board only varies by about 20 N.
 Energy needed to reach an altitude of 100 km

 The work that needs to be done on a 1 kg object to reach

a height of 100 km above the Earth’s surface is calculated
in the following way.
 work done    = gravitational force x vertical height
                   = (1 x 9.8) N x (100 x 1000) m
                   = 980 000 joules
 If we account for the fact that gravity is decreasing very
slightly as distance from the Earth increases, the
corrected value is 967 000 joules.
 ‣G. Orbital velocity of satellites.

 The motion of objects is governed by Newton's laws.

 The same simple laws that govern the motion of objects
on earth also extend to the heavens to govern the motion
of planets, moons, and other satellites. 
 Orbital Speed Equation

 Consider a satellite with mass Msat orbiting a central body with a mass of

mass MCentral.
 The central body could be a planet, the sun or some other large mass
capable of causing sufficient acceleration on a less massive nearby
object. If the satellite moves in circular motion, then the net centripetal
force acting upon this orbiting satellite is given by the relationship

This net centripetal force is the result of the gravitational force that attracts

the satellite towards the central body and can be represented as
 Since  the above expressions for centripetal force and
gravitational force can be set equal to each other. Thus,

Observe that the mass of the satellite is present on both

sides of the equation; thus it can be canceled by dividing
through by Msat. Then both sides of the equation can be
multiplied by R, leaving the following equation.

Taking the square root of each side, leaves the following

equation for the velocity of a satellite moving about a central
body in circular motion
Where   is the mass of the central body about which the
satellite orbits, and  is the radius of orbit for the satellite.
Summary for pervious arrangement equations

 Where   is the mass of the central body about which the
satellite orbits, and  is the radius of orbit for the satellite.
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