ARCHITECTURE

FROM DIFFERENT HISTORICAL PERIODS AND

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
The earliest urban culture on the Indian subcontinent was that of the Indus valley civilization, which existed from about 2500 bc to
about 1700 bc. It had thriving cities and towns, mainly in the Indus River valley of what is now Pakistan but also in what are now
Gujarat, Rajasthan, and other parts of India. From ruins uncovered by archaeologists, it is clear that the Indus valley civilization had a
flourishing urban architecture. Its major cities—notably Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Kalibangan—were laid out in a grid pattern.
They had provisions for an advanced drainage system. The major cities each had a great fortified “citadel” mound and a larger lower
area. The most common building material was brick, though timber was occasionally used as a lacing for brickwork. Timber was also
used for the roofs, which were flat. The houses varied greatly in size. Many of them consisted of an open patio flanked by rooms,
including a bathroom. In many cases brick stairways led to what must have been upper stories or flat roofs.
MAURYAN PERIOD

Considering the power and large territory of the Mauryan empire, which lasted from about 321
to 185 BC, its architectural remains are remarkably few. However, this empire has left the
earliest surviving examples of monumental Indian architecture. Among the most important are
stupas, notably the magnificent Great Stupa at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh state, India). The stupa
is the most typical monument of the Buddhist faith. It consists of a dome-shaped mound
containing sacred objects or remains. The stupa has its origins in mounds raised over the buried
remains of the dead that were found in India even before the rise of Buddhism. The dome of the
Great Stupa at Sanchi symbolizes the dome of heaven enclosing the earth. It is surrounded by a
massive stone railing with four gateways. The gateways are adorned with elaborately carved
relief sculptures showing important Buddhist scenes. The Great Stupa was probably begun in the
mid-3rd century BC, under the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.
The architecture of the Mauryan period also included roofless shrines that enclosed a sacred
object such as a tree or altar. Temples of brick and timber with vaulted or dome-shaped roofs
were built as well. However, they have not survived. A few examples imitating wooden temples
were carved into rock, notably in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills near Gaya (Bihar state, India).
Such temples carved out of solid rock are known as cave temples.
A Mauryan hall excavated at the site of Kumrahar in Patna (Bihar state) had a high wooden
platform of most excellent workmanship. On top of the platform stood eight rows of 10 columns
each, which once supported a second story.
EARLY INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (2ND
CENTURY BC–3RD CENTURY AD)
During the period between the end of the Mauryan dynasty and the rise of the
Gupta dynasty, the stupas became progressively larger and more elaborate. The
stone railings of the stupas are often lavishly carved with relief sculpture, such as at
Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh state), Sanchi, and Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh state).
Important schools of Buddhist sculpture thrived at Gandhara (northwestern
Pakistan) and Mathura (Uttar Pradesh state) during this period.

A number of cave temples and monasteries were cut out of cliffs in western India.
Typically, they consist of a central rectangular nave separated from aisles at either
side by two rows of pillars. The pillars support the roof. An outstanding example is
at Karli (Maharashtra state) from the late 1st century BC.
Most of the construction of the time was in wood or brick and has not survived.
However, numerous buildings are depicted on relief sculptures. The sculptures
show walled and moated cities with massive gates, elaborate multistoried houses,
and pavilions with a variety of domes. A striking feature of this early Indian
architecture is the frequent use of arched windows and doors. The relief sculptures
also depict the simple thatched-roofed huts that remained the basis of most Indian
architectural forms.
GUPTA PERIOD

During the rule of the Gupta dynasty, in the 4th to 6th

centuries AD, a new style of Hindu temple arose that was to
become important to the future development of Indian
temple architecture. This type of temple has a small square
sanctuary, a chamber that contains the main image or
emblem of the temple deity. This sanctuary is called the
garbhagriha (meaning “womb-room”) and is topped by a
pyramid-shaped tower or spire called the shikhara. This style
of temple found its fullest expression in India’s medieval
period (discussed below). The great Maha Bodhi Temple at
Bodh Gaya (Bihar state), commemorating the spot where
the Buddha attained enlightenment, is essentially a temple
of the Gupta period.

Temples of a simpler style, with flat roofs, were also

constructed during the Gupta period. Stupas and rock-cut
temples and monasteries continued to be built as well.
Some of the cave temples of this period, especially at
Ajanta, were carved with extreme richness and
magnificence.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Great stone temples were built in India in the medieval period, especially from the 9th to 11th
centuries. An extremely large number of these temples have survived in almost every part of India,
particularly in the south. Hindu temples were designed in two main styles: one found generally in
northern India and the other in southern India. In each of these styles, the temple includes a small
square sanctuary (the garbhagriha) and one or more pillared porches or halls (mandapas). Rising
above the sanctuary is a tower or spire.
In the north Indian style, the tower or spire above the sanctuary is known as the shikhara. It is the
most distinctive part of the temple. The shikhara usually has a curved outline. In many temples,
smaller shikharas with straight outlines top the mandapas as well. The entrance doorway of the
sanctuary is often richly decorated with figures of river goddesses and bands of ornamentation. The
exterior walls are usually adorned with sculptures of mythological and semidivine figures, with the
main images of the deities placed in niches carved on the main projections. The entire temple complex
may be raised on a terrace, which is sometimes of considerable height and size. Notable examples of
north Indian temples can be seen at Osian (Rajasthan state); Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh state); and
Konark (Konarak), Bhubaneshwar, and Puri (Odisha state).
In temples of the south Indian style, the tower above the sanctuary is of the kutina type. This type of
tower consists of stepped stories that form a pyramid shape. Each story has a parapet (a low wall)
composed of miniature shrines strung together. The outside walls of the temple are divided by
pilasters (shallow rectangular columns that project slightly beyond the wall). These walls have niches
that house sculpture. In south Indian temples, entrance gateways called gopuras give access to the
temple enclosures. From the middle of the 12th century onward, the gopuras began to be greatly
emphasized. These gopuras are extremely large and elaborately decorated with sculpture, quite
dominating the temple complex. Often a series of gopuras are to be found at a shrine, each providing
entry through a new enclosure wall. Outstanding examples of south Indian temples include the Shore
Temple at Mamallapuram, the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and the great temple at
Gangaikondacolapuram—all in Tamil Nadu state. The latter two were built by the powerful Chola
dynasty.
Cave temples continued to be carved. The traditions of cave architecture are stronger in Maharashtra
than in any other part of India. The most remarkable cave temples there are at Elephanta Island and at
Ellora.
ISLAMIC PERIOD

The extension of Islam into India in the 11th and 12th centuries introduced typical Muslim
architectural elements into mosques, tombs, and other structures on the subcontinent. These
elements included such forms as the dome and the pointed arch as well as Islamic styles of
decoration.
A Muslim kingdom known as the Delhi sultanate dominated northern India from the 1200s to the
1500s. The Pashtun style of Islamic architecture developed in this period. Among the typical features
of this style are red sandstone surfaces with white marble inlays and arches in the shape of a pointed
horseshoe. Windows were fitted with perforated screens. The buildings feature intricate and
abundant decoration. Notable early Pashtun architecture in Delhi includes the Quwat-ul-Islam
mosque, a tall tower called the Qutb Minar, the tomb of the sultan Iltutmish, and the Alaʾi Gate. Later
Pashtun styles are represented by the tombs of the Sayyid and Lodi kings.
From the mid-16th to the late 17th century, under the rule of the Mughal dynasty, northern India saw
a striking revival of Islamic architecture. Persian, Indian, and various local architectural styles were
successfully combined. Mughal architects produced structures of unusual refinement and quality.
The new style began with the tomb of Humayun, a Mughal emperor, at Delhi. The first great period of
Mughal building activity occurred under the emperor Akbar, who reigned 1556–1605, at Agra and at
the new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri (both now in Uttar Pradesh state). The Great Mosque (Jamiʿ
Masjid) of Fatehpur Sikri is one of the finest mosques of the Mughal period. It is known for its
enormous gateway, the Victory Gate (Burland Darzawa). The great fort at Agra and the tomb of Akbar
at Sikandara, near Agra, are other notable structures from Akbar’s reign. Most of these early Mughal
buildings use arches only sparingly and are built of red sandstone or red marble.
Mughal architecture reached its peak during the reign of emperor Shah Jahan (1628–58). Persian
architectural features were emphasized. The use of the double dome and parklike surroundings are
typical of Shah Jahan period buildings. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a building were
always stressed as was delicate ornamental detail. White marble was a favored building material.
Among the landmarks of the Shah Jahan period are several mosques at Agra and another great
mosque and a huge fortress-palace complex called the Red Fort at Delhi. The crowning achievement,
however, was the magnificent Taj Mahal, at Agra. The architectural monuments of Shah Jahan’s
successor, Aurangzeb, represent a distinct decline in Indian architecture.
EUROPEAN TRADITIONS AND THE MODERN PERIOD
Buildings imitating contemporary styles of European architecture were constructed in
India from at least the 16th century. In these structures, European styles were often given
a strong local Indian flavor. Some of this work was of considerable merit, particularly the
Baroque architecture of the Portuguese colony of Goa, India. Splendid structures were
built there in the second half of the 16th century. Among the most famous of these
buildings to survive is the church of Bom Jesus, which was completed in 1605.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, several buildings deeply indebted to Western Neoclassic
styles were constructed in India. Neoclassic architecture was inspired by the building styles
of ancient Greece and Rome. In India, European Neoclassic buildings were imitated by
Indian patrons, particularly in areas under European rule or influence. Later, the British
tried, with varying degrees of success, to combine Western and Indian architectural
traditions in styles known as Gothic revival and Indo-Saracenic (which includes both
Islamic and Indian elements). A notable example of a British Gothic revival building in India
is the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus), a railway station in
Mumbai. Buildings in the major Indian cities came under increasing European influence.
The resulting mixed styles gradually found their way into cities in the interior.
In recent years, an attempt has been made to grapple with the problems of climate and
function, particularly in connection with urban development in India. The Swiss architect
Le Corbusier directed the construction of a new capital, Chandigarh, for India’s Punjab
state in the early 1950s. His influence and that of other American and European masters
helped bring about a modern architectural movement in India of great vitality. This
movement is in the process of adapting itself to local requirements and traditions—for
example, in the work of Indian architect Charles Correa.
TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY
The Fabric of India
• The story of textiles in India is one of the
oldest in the world. The earliest surviving
Indian cotton threads date to around 4000 BC
and dyed fabrics from the region are
documented as far back as 2500 BC. India’s
textiles were so central to its identity abroad
that in ancient Greece and Babylon the very
name ‘India’ was shorthand for ‘cotton’. India’s
textiles are embedded in every aspect of its
identity. Courtly splendour was proclaimed by
magnificent fabrics and religious worship still
finds expression through cloth. Global trade
systems were formed on the export of Indian
fabrics, and the hand-making of cloth
continues to shape India today.
Nature and Making
• India’s rich natural resources for making and decorating textiles are unrivalled. The varied
geographical regions and climates provide a huge range of plant fibres and natural dyes for the
cultivators, weavers, dyers, printers and embroiderers of the subcontinent. Over centuries, most
regions developed specialities based on local resources: the golden silks of Assam, the fine cottons
of Bengal, the red dyes of south-east India. Textile makers use an astonishing range of skills to
process raw materials and produce regionally distinctive dyes, weaves, prints and embroideries.

RAW
• Cotton and silk are the raw materials most associated
with Indian textiles. India supplied cotton cloth to the
world for centuries. The country also produced an
astonishing variety of hand-made fabrics for domestic
use until industrialisation changed how cottons were
made and sold. India’s wild and semi-domesticated silks
(quite distinct from that of cultivated mulberry
silkworms) continue to provide a huge range of yarn
and fabric for local use. Other animal fibres used to
make textiles include sheep’s wool and yak- and goat-
hair. Finished textiles are also often decorated with
natural products – insect wings, mica and cowrie shells.
 Dye
India’s natural dyes, especially those for blue and red, have been renowned for millennia. Blue dye was so
closely associated with India that the ancient Greeks took its western name – indikos (indigo) – from the
country itself. Red dyeing with fixing agents (mordants) was known to the Indus valley civilisation by about
2500 BC. Fixing the colour is the great challenge of dyeing cloth. Indian dyers’ use of mordants was key to their
mastery, which was unrivalled until the invention of western chemical dyes in the 19th century.

Indigo Ikat sari

Indigo takes its name from ‘India’. Derived from
the leaves of shrubs in the Indigofera family, the
dye has been used for millennia in most regions of
India to colour yarn and fabric (especially cotton)
in shades of blue. Indigo is a substantive dye,
which fixes without the help of a mordant. To make
patterned cloth, the dyer may use a ‘resist’ such as
wax or string to prevent some areas turning blue, as
on the spotted 19th-century turban at right.
This sari is made using the single ikat technique where
the dyer has coloured the crosswise weft threads with a
pattern before weaving them with the plain lengthwise
warp threads. In double ikat, both warp and weft are pre-
dyed with a pattern. Skilled weaving then ensures that the
two sets of patterned yarn match up precisely, revealing
the complex design. Neeru Kumar designed this
contemporary piece inspired by African colours and
patterns. She collaborates with ikat weavers from Odisha
to develop her range of saris.
Weave
• Each part of India has its own weaving tradition, but Gujarat was the
main centre of innovation for more than 500 years. As Gujarati weavers
migrated, weaving techniques and technologies spread all over South
Asia. The simplest type is plain weave, in which the weaver runs a weft
thread evenly over and under a fixed set of warp threads. More
complex weaves derive from this basic method. Looms in India ranged
from the simple back-strap loom to complex draw-looms on which
velvets and patterned silks were woven. Their use declined with the rise
of the mechanised Jacquard loom in the 19th century.