INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
AND BEHAVIORAL
SCIENCES
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
RESEARCH
• Research involves a study or investigation of the issues,
conditions, problems and concerns related to a field of
study or discipline.
• A systematic investigation requires that researchers
specify a well-defined purpose for a study, the
objectives to be achieved, the questions to be answered
or hypotheses to be tested.
• Research requires scientific thinking.
• The application of scientific thinking
to research required systematic
inquiry, factual evidence and analysis
of the evidence to obtain accurate
conclusions.
• Research requires the application of
scientific procedures.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC STUDIES

1. Research designs are based on structured, rigorous

and ethical procedures.
2. Research results are based on objective evidence.
3. Scientific procedures permit replication of a study
and verification of results.
4. Research questions and hypotheses are stated to
guide a study.
5. Hypotheses to be tested are stated in the
null form, tested are stated in the null form tested
empirically and lack emotion- laden language
6. A scientific approach controls for systematic
bias in study design.
7. Science uses valid and reliable measuring tools.
8. Systematic studies involve scientific thinking.
•Researchers must be objective
when reporting the results of
their investigations.
 PLANNING A STUDY
• A research design is a plan the researcher puts in place to
follow through out the conduct of an investigation. The
design must be appropriate for the purpose of the study
and the research hypotheses to be tested, if any.
• Quantitative research designs vary from highly rigorous
with randomization, controls, varying treatments or
conditions and manipulation of independent variables to
less rigorous designs using intact groups, no opportunity
for manipulation of independent variables and no
treatments or controls.
 TYPES OF
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 BASIC RESEARCH
Basic research is usually conducted over a certain
time period for the purpose of verifying or
modifying an existing theory or generating a new
one. The results of basic research are corroborated
with existing research on the same or similar topics
to determine whether support of the earlier theories
holds. In a more general sense, empirical evidence
that contradicts the theory is not discovered.
 APPLIED RESEARCH
The purpose of applied studies is to solve some
immediate or impending problem. The difference
between the two approaches is that basic research
uses the evidence to support theories and applied
research uses the evidence to enhance practice.
The results of applied research are used to
improve practices, policies and programs.
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The purpose of experimental studies is to investigate cause-
effect relationships between two variables or among more than
two variables under certain conditions or treatment situations.
Specifically, the purpose is to identify whether groups differ on
a specific variable (called the dependent variable) based on their
exposure or lack of exposure to a specific condition or treatment
(called the independent variable). Subjects in the comparison
groups should display similar characteristics, especially
characteristics that may influence the outcome of the dependent
variable.
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
If random assignment to a specific treatment group is not
possible and random selection of subjects is impractical or
unethical, then a study is classified as quasi-experimental; for
example, research in education and sociology is conducted
often on existing groups (classrooms, social clubs, work
teams). By the same token, if subjects can be selected
randomly but random assignment to conditions (patients with
macular degeneration and those without) is impossible, then a
design is classified as quasi-experimental.
NON EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
When neither random selection nor random
assignment to treatment is possible, ethical or
desirable.
Descriptive or status quo studies, correlation
studies, causal comparative studies and
longitudinal studies are classified.
DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
Designed to investigate a current state of affairs.
These studies are also known as status studies
because the focus is on the impacts of groups,
objects or phenomena or variables of interest.
Randomization of subject selection may or may
not be possible or desirable, depending upon the
size of the population and the nature of the study.
 CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
focuses on linear relationships between two or more
variables for one or more groups. The variables are
represented by scores or values such as test scores for
mathematics, reading, language arts or history. Scores
may also be based on attitudes toward social issues or
voter opinions of candidates. Any association between
the variables should not be interpreted incorrectly to
mean that one variable causes the other.
 Opposite in structure and conduct form experimental
designs. In experimental designs, researchers attempt to isolate
causes (variables) so that they can examine effects. In causal
comparative studies, researchers observe effects and then look
retrospectively for the causes. Causal comparisons are also
known as ex post facto (after-the-fact) studies. Valuable for
many studies in the social and behavioral sciences such as
investigating patterns of behavior and achievement motivation
by examining past school records of children.

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE DESIGN

 LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
Classified as quasi-experimental or nonexperimental,
depending on the level of control and purpose of the
study. Such studies collect data on the same variables at
designated points in time to measure changes in
dependent variables from one time point to another.
Longitudinal studies have the advantage that
measures of the same variables from one time period to
another can be compared.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
The population from which information is
to be gathered is frequently too large to be
practical; therefore, a subset or sample of the
population must be used. The manner in
which the sample is critical to a successful
study.
Design Type Features
Experimental Purpose: Investigate cause-effect relationships
Characteristics Random selection of subjects; random
assignment of subjects to treatments or
condition; manipulation of independent
variables; provides maximum control
Advantages: Maximum control; can claim cause-effect;
replication and verification procedures
Disadvantages: Difficult to create pure experimental
conditions in behavioral and social sciences
research; experimenter expectations may
bias interpretations
Quasi Purpose: Alternative to pure experimental design
experimental
Characteristics: May or may not have randomness; lacks control
Advantages: Useful for intact groups; can rule out rival hypotheses
Disadvantages: Risks internal and extternal validity; low statistical
power
Descriptive Purpose: Investigate status quo
Characteristics: Random selection varies; no random assignment to
treatments or conditions
Advantages: Useful for status quo studies; easy design for intact
groups
Disadvantages: No treatment or control groups; no claim of causal
Correlation Purpose: Investigate relationships between and among
individual variables and sets of variables
Characteristics Shows strength and direction (positive or negative)
of linear and nonlinear relationships
Advantages: Easy to use and interpret; can serve as starting point
for other analyses
Disadvantages: Does not show cause-effect relatioships; no control
over confounding variables
Causal Purpose: Investigate events or effects after they have occurred
comparative
(ex post facto) Characteristics Opposite of experimental design; causes sought after
effects are observed, no random assignment to
treatments or conditions
Advantages: useful for retrospective studies; less costly than true
experimental designs
  Disadvantages: Lack of control; extraneous variables are possible
Design Type Features

Longitudinal Purpose: Measure changes in a variable over time

Characteristics: Considered quasi-experimental or nonexperimental;

randomization annd level of control vary; measures

made at different points in time

Advantages: Allows comparisons of one or more measures on one

or more variables over time

Disadvantages: Internal and external validity affected by history;

mortality, or attrition; usually costly and time

    consuming; low statistical power

PROBABILITY SAMPLES
• Simple random samples (behavioral and social
sciences)
• Stratified random sample (selected randomly
from each strata or sub group of a population)
• Cluster samples (all members of the cluster be
selected)
 NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLES
• Quota samples (each segment or subset of a
population is represented in the sample to
the same extent that it exists in the
population.
• Convenience sample (convenient cases that
can be included in a survey)
 POPULATION AND
SAMPLE SIZE
• Sample size affects the power of a test, the
larger the sample size, the more powerful
the test.
• Power of Efficiency of a test is the
relationship between sample size and
statistical power.
 VALIDITY AND
RELIABILITY OF
MEASUREMENT
INSTRUMENTS
INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
FACE VALIDITY
qualitative decision related to the appearance,
relevance and representativeness of the items on a
written instrument. Face validity is usually
established by a 9-to-13 member panel of experts
in research methods who review the instrument
and all aspects of its appearance.
CONTENT VALIDITY
Can be established by a panel of
experts who verify the
knowledge base on the items.
 CONSTRUCT
VALIDITY
More elusive than face validity or
content validity because constructs
are often difficult to define.
 CRITERION-RELATED
VALIDITY
Extent that instrument scores or
performance tasks are correlated
highly with an existing test that is
known to be valid.
 INSTRUMENT
RELIABILITY
Degree to which a measuring
instrument is consistent over time on
measures for similar populations.
 TYPES OF
RELIABILITY
 INTER-RATER
RELIABILITY
Is the extent to which the ratings of two or
more judges or raters are similar for an
individual, object or performance. Judges
record their ratings and their ratings are
correlated. A strong positive correlation
denotes a high level of agreement between the
judges.
SPLIT-HALF RELIABILITY
Association between two halves of the same
instrument to evaluate whether the items on both
halves of a test measure the same factor. The
halves of the test may be determined randomly, or
all even numbered items can be compared with all
odd numbered items to evaluate the strength of the
correlation between the two sets of items.
 REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
develops background information and a
theoretical basis for the study. The purpose of the
study and the need for the investigation can be
supported by existing literature. And a thorough
review will show a researcher where the gaps are
in the knowledge of a specific topic. It follows a
systematic and logical progression of information.
 STATEMENT OF
LIMITATION
Limitations help define broad terms such as
quality of life, job satisfaction and beauty within the
context of a specific study.
Limitations related to the conduct of a study, such
as sample choice, sampling procedures, research
instruments, methods of data collection, return rate
of survey forms and analyses should be addressed.
 STATEMENT OF
ASSUMPTIONS
Statements or ideas about a study that a
researcher accepts as truth. (a basic assumption of
all survey research is that participants will respond
honestly to the items)
 FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research questions should be relevant and
meaningful to the topic so that their responses
contribute to the solution of the problem. In behavioral
and social sciences research, it is wise to avoid “yes or
no” research questions.
Questions that elicit “yes or no” responses do not
provide sufficient information for researchers to
formulate informed conclusions about findings.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
HYPOTHESES
A hypothesis is a statement of a tentative theory
or supposition adopted for the purpose of
explaining certain known conditions.
Hypotheses guide the research process and are
usually classified as directional or nondirectional.
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS

A researcher’s prediction of the effect, relationship or

difference among variables.

NONDIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS

Makes no such prediction and are stated in the null

form.