Project Management: A

Managerial Approach

Chapter 8 – Scheduling
 Scheduling
• Definition.: A schedule is the conversion
of a project action plan into an operating
timetable.
• Is the basis for monitoring and controlling
project activity.
• Taken together with the plan and budget,
it is probably the major tool for the
management of projects.
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Network Techniques: PERT and CPM

• With the exception of Gantt charts, most common

approach to scheduling is the use of network
techniques such as PERT and CPM
– The Critical Path Method (CPM) was developed by
DuPont, Inc during the same time period.
– The Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT) was developed by the U.S. Navy in 1958

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Network Techniques: PERT and CPM

• Advantages
– Can visualize task relationships.
– Facilitates CP (Critical Path) Calculation
– Can see impact of decisions on downstream activities.
• Disadvantages
– May be complex, not easy to understand at a glance.

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 Scheduling Terminology
• Activity - A specific task or set of tasks that are
required by the project, use up resources, and take
time to complete.
• Event - The result of completing one or more
activities. An identifiable end state occurring at a
particular time. Events use no resources.
• Network - The combination of all activities and
events define the project and the activity
precedence relationships.

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 Scheduling Terminology

• Path - The series of connected activities (or

intermediate events) between any two events in a
network.
• Critical - Activities, events, or paths which, if
delayed, will delay the completion of the project.
A project’s critical path is understood to mean
that sequence of critical activities that connect
the project’s start event to its finish event.
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 Scheduling Terminology
• An activity can be in any of these conditions:
– It may have a successor(s) but no predecessor(s) -
starts a network
– It may have a predecessor(s) but no successor(s) -
ends a network
– It may have both predecessor(s) and successor(s) - in
the middle of a network

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 Drawing Networks
• Activity-on-Arrow (AOA) networks use arrows to
represent activities while nodes stand for events
• Activity-on-Node (AON) networks use nodes to
represent activities with arrows to show
precedence relationships
• The choice between AOA and AON
representation is largely a matter of personal
preference

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AOA (Activity on Arrow)
Network Building Blocks
AON AOA

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 AOA (Activity on Arrow)
Network Building Blocks
AON AOA

Activity on Node Activity on Arrow

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 AOA (Activity on Arrow)
Network Building Blocks

Any activity must have its source in one and only one node. If two activities
occur between the same two nodes, insert a “dummy node” & activity
w/duration 0.
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Sample Input Information to a CPM Problem
(Action Plan)
Duration
Activity* Predecessor
(weeks)
A 14 Start

B 3 Start

C 3 A,B

D 7 B

E 4 C,D

F 10 E

* Activities could be Deliverables, Tasks, Subtasks or Operations.

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 A Sample Network (AON)
A 14 C 3

Start E 4 F 10

B 3 D 7 Finis
h
Calculate:
Project Duration
Critical Path (CP)
Activities on CP
(AON): Letters indicate activities, Arrows indicate relations

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 The Critical Path (CP)
ES = 0 ES =
EF = 14
14 EF = 17
A 14 C 3 ES = ES =
17 21
EF = 21 EF = 31
Start E 4 F 10

B 3 D 7 Finish
ES = ES = 3
0 EF =
EF = 3 10
ES: Earliest (Possible) Starting
Time
EF: Earliest (Possible Finish Time
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 Determining Slack
•How much slack is there
•Where is it?
•How do you know?
•Why might you care?

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 Determining Slack
ES = 0 ES = 14
EF = 14 EF = 17
LS = 0 LS = 14 ES = ES = 21
LF = 14 LF = 17 17 EF = 31
EF = 21 LS = 21
A 14 C 3 LS = 17 LF = 31
LF = 21
Start E 4 F 10

B 3 D 7 Finis
h
ES = 0 ES = 3
EF = 3 EF = 10 Work Back . . .
LS = 7 LS = 10
LF = 10 LF = 17

Critical Activity
LS: Latest Starting
Time 181-1
LF: Latest Finish Time
 Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
What does Program Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT) mean?
Program evaluation and review technique (PERT)
is a technique adopted by organizations to analyze
and represent the activity in a project, and to
illustrate the flow of events in a project.
PERT is a method to evaluate and estimate the
time required to complete a task within deadlines.
-PERT serves as an management tool to
analyze, define and integrate events.

- PERT also illustrates the activities and

interdependencies in a project.

- The main goal of PERT is to reduce the cost

and time needed to complete a project.
 Steps in Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
PERT was developed in 1950 by the U.S. Navy
during the Cold War and is intended for large
projects, which are:
- Complex
- Require a series of sequential tasks
- Performed in parallel with other projects
PERT planning usually involves the following steps:
1. Identifying Tasks and Milestones: Every
project involves a series of required tasks. These
tasks are listed in a table allowing additional
information on sequence and timing to be added
later.
2. Placing the Tasks in a Proper Sequence: The
tasks are analyzed and placed in a sequence to
get the desired results.
3. Network Diagramming: A network diagram is drawn
using the activity sequence data showing the sequence of
serial and parallel activities.

4. Time Estimating: This is the time required to carry out

each activity, in three parts:

a. Optimistic timing: The shortest time to complete an activity.

b. Most likely timing: The completion time having the highest
probability.
c. Pessimistic timing: The longest time to complete an activity.
5. Critical Path Estimating: This determines
the total time required to complete a project.
6. PERT not only determines the time to
complete a specific software development
activity, but also determines the cost.

Mathematical Calculations From the Text

Book