1

WORKSHOP PRACTICE
Dr. Aneela Wakeel
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INTRODUCTION
• Carpentry deals with the construction of work such as making roofs, floors
portions etc. of a building , doors, windows, trusses, workbenches, house
hold furniture and many other useful articles by means of suitable wood.

• The term joinery is used for connecting the wooden parts with the different
joints such as making doors, stairs, furniture and many other articles.

• The timber is the material used for carpentry and joinery work. Timber is the
name given to wood obtained from exogenous (outward growing) trees.
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Beam:
A beam is a structural element that is
capable of withstanding load primarily by
resisting against bending.

Batten:
It is generally a strip of solid
material, historically made from
wood but can also be made from
plastic, metal, or fiberglass

Plank:
A plank is timber that
is flat, elongated, and
rectangular with
parallel faces that are
higher and longer
than wide.
planks are critical in
the construction of
ships, houses,
bridges, and many
other structures.
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STRUCTURE OF TIMBER TREE

1. Pith
2. Heart Wood
3. Sap Wood
4. Cambium Layer
5. Inner Bark or Bast
6. Outer Bark or Cortex
7. Annual Rings
8. Medullary Rays
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Structure of timber tree cont.

Pith or medulla:
It is the inner most central portion or core of the tree. It consist of only cellular
tissues. It contains a lot of fluid which nourishes the plant. The annual rings are
added around this every year. When the plant becomes old, the medulla dries up and
decays.

Annual Rings:
These are concentric circles or rings of woody fiber around the pith. They are
formed every year. The number of annual rings indicates the age of a tree.

Heartwood:
It consist of the inner annual rings around the pith. It is compact, strong, durable
and darker in color. The heartwood increases in size as the tree ages.
This part provides the best timber for engineering works.

Sapwood:
It consist of the outer annual rings between the heartwood and cambium layer. It is
called albumen. It is weaker, softer and lighter in color as compared to heartwood.
This wood is unsuitable for engineering purposes as it is liable to decay or attack
by insects.
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Structure of tree cont.

Cambium layer:
It is thin layer just below the dark and not covered to sapwood yet. This is mainly
responsible for the circumferential growth of the tree. If the bark is removed, a cambium
layer get exposed and the cells cease to be active which results in the death of a tree.

Medullary rays:
These are thin radial fibres extending from the pith to cambium layer. These rays carry
sap from the outside to the inner parts of the tree to nourish it. They hold to annular
rings together tightly to provide a solid structure to the tree.

Inner bark or bast:

It is the inner skin or layer covering the cambium layer. It protects the cambium layer
from injury.

Outer bark or cortex:

It is the outermost cover or skin of stem. It prevents the tree from external injuries and
weather action.
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Properties of timber
• Color: The lighter the color is, the
weaker is the timber. There is a
variation of color from one tree to the
other. If you observe carefully,
freshly cut walnut, teak, and deodar
have dark brown, golden yellow and
whitish color shades respectively.
• Appearance: Good timber is
known by its characteristic
aroma.
• Soundness: A timber of good
quality always produces a good
sound.
• Quality: Superior quality timber
is generally free of abrasion.
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Timber Properties-Hardness
• Hardness: The Janka hardwood rating test is a test that determines the hardness of a
piece of wood. Quite often the hardness of a piece of wood relates directly with its density. 

The process of measuring the density of

wood begins by embedding a steel ball
that has a diameter of 11.28 millimeters
(roughly 0.444 inches) halfway into the
wood’s surface. The force required to
push the ball into the wood (measured
in pounds-force, or lbf) indicates how
dense and strong the wood is. For
example, hickory hardwood has a Janka
rating of 1820; this means that it
required 1,820 pounds of force to
embed the steel ball into hickory’s
surface.
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Properties of timer
• Specific Gravity: Usually, the specific gravity (the ratio of its density to that of
the other) of timber varies from 0.3 to 0.9.  The specific gravity depends heavily
on the pores present. As the pores decrease, it may increase to more than 1.5.
• Moisture Content: Timber is naturally hygroscopic. The more the water
content, the more it is susceptible to fungal attacks.

Grain: Grain arrangement in timber can be

of various types like straight, coarse or
interlocked.
Density: Good quality timber has a thicker
wall and higher density. The more the
moisture content, the lesser is the density of
timber.
Toughness: Timber has a high capacity of
bearing shocks and jerks. Older timber with
annular rings is a good indication of quality.
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Properties of timber
• Shrinkage or Swelling: Shrinkage in timber generally occurs after
cutting and drying. When the cell wall of timber starts losing water,
shrinkage gets underway. However, if the timber quality is good, then they
usually do not swell.

• Strength: A quality timber is known to have the highest strength. The

more the strength, the more is the ability to bear loads. The best strength
for timber is 500 kg/square cm to 700 kg/square cm. When the bending
strength is more, it generally indicates good quality.

• Elasticity: Timbers generally attain its own shape after usage.

• Durability: Good timber is known by its resistance power to fungal

attack.
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ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER
• Easy and quick to build: when compared to a traditional brick or
concrete structure, a wood structure is easy and quick to build.
• Cost: constructing a timber home or structure is less expensive than
any other conventional technique with the same requirements or
dimensions.
• Great insulator: buildings made of bricks are recognized for their
excellent insulating capabilities, but timber manages to surpass them. 
• Recyclable: timber can be reused multiple times. It is simple to
recycle. 
• Aesthetic appeal: timber is a beautiful material that can be used both
inside and outside.
• Eco sustainable: timber is a renewable resource.
• Weight: wood is a relatively lightweight material.
• Structural strength: timber framings are extremely long-lasting.
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Disadvantages of Timber
• Shrinkage and Swelling: Trees need water to grow and wooden
materials can easily absorb water if not treated or maintained properly.
When water gets into the wooden fibers, the material expands, and its
structural properties become much weaker.
• Pests & Fungi: Certain pests, insects, and fungi have the ability to
digest wood. If a home is not protected against them, it’s a never-ending
buffet. Some small insects, such as termites, may drill and drive lines into
the wood fibers that can lead to significant deterioration of the wood
material before it’s too late. Not only will pest treatments be needed, but
wooden structural members may need to be replaced as well .
• Fire: Unless treated with chemicals, wood can easily catch fire and is
considered a combustible material. Thicker wood may extend the burning
point of wooden materials, but engineered materials, such as oriented
strand board or engineered I-joists, can easily catch fire, burn quickly,
and spread very fast.
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CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
1. Exogenous Tree or Outer growing
(a) Conifer or Evergreen Tree
(Soft Wood)
(b) Deciduous ( Hard Wood)
2. Endogenous Tree or Inwards
Growing (Bamboo, Banana, Palm,
Cane)

Exogenous trees grow in width by

forming a new layer of wood under
the bark.
Endogenous trees grow by forming
new fibers within the trunk
interspersed with the old fibers.
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Characteristics of Soft Wood and Hard Wood

Soft Wood Hard Wood
1. It is non-resinous wood
1. It is resinous wood having a
containing a fairly good amount
fragrant smell and regular
of acid.
texture.
2. Fibers are quite close and
2. Straight fiber and good texture.
compact.
3. Light in colour and weight.
3. Dark in colour and heavy in
4. Annual rings are distinct weight.
5. Good tensile strength and week 4. Annual rings are not distinct
shear strength
5. Good tensile as well as shear
6. Get split quickly strength.
7. Weaker and less durable 6. Does not split quickly
8. Catch fire soon cannot 7. stronger and more durable
withstand high temperature.
8. It has an added advantage in its
9. It is easy to be worked. refractoriness.
9. It is difficult to be worked.
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Soft wood :
Softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees such as conifers.
Softwood is the source of about 80% of the world's production of timber.
Cedar, Linden/Lime/Bass wood, Pine, Spruce, Kail wood

Cedar (Deodar) Linden

pine
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Hard wood
• The term is opposed to hardwood, which is the wood from angiosperm trees.
Ash, Aspen, Birch, Cherry, Elm, Hazel, Mathogany, Maple, Oak, Teak and Walnut

Ash tree Aspen and its branch

Birch Elm tree Hazel

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Major Timber Tress in Pakistan

One of the most important utility of plants is the timber, which is inevitable for the
construction of buildings. The forests are mostly found in our Northern areas, Galiat,
Kaghan, Swat, Dir, Chitral, Azad Kashmir and mountainous areas of Baluchistan, while
some timber plants are also found in different parts of Punjab and Sindh.

Dalbergia sissoo:
common(shisham,tali)
It is an important and hard timber of
Pakistan grown in plain areas of the
country.
Eucalptus (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis):
common(sufaida)
This tree is common in Pakistan and is
useful for making roofs of the buildings.
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Major Timber Tress in Pakistan

Acacia nilotica:
common(kikar)
It is an economical plant which meets the
majority of our timber needs. The plant is
grown in plain areas of Pakistan.
Pinus roxburghii:
common(Chir)
It is one of the most important trees of
mountainous regions of our country and
its wood is used as timber as well as in
furniture. The plant grows between 3000
– 5000 ft. altitude.
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Major Timber Tress in Pakistan

Pinus wallichiana:common(kail)
Blue pine is also very important for timber
and furniture and grows from an altitude of
5000 – 8000 ft.
Cedrus deodar : common(Diar):
Because of the termite-free quality, the
wood of this plant is very costly and
durable. The wood is used in timber and
quality furniture.
Quercus incana:common(Barungi)
It is a broad leaved tree famous for its
hardness and is used as timber. The plant
dwells in mountainous areas from 3000 –
8000 ft. altitude.
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Major Timber Tress in Pakistan

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides: common(sum)
It is the most precious wood used in quality
furniture. The plant is inhabiting in northern areas,
Kaghan, Swat, Chitral & Kohistan. The plant is at
the verge of extinction and measures should be taken
to protect the species.

Walnut (Juglanus
regia):common(Akhrot
It is the common plant of our
northern areas, Kaghan, Swat, Dir,
Chitral and Azad Kashmir. The
wood is used for decorated furniture
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FELLING OF TRESS
Cutting of living or standing trees to obtain timber is called
felling of trees.

Trees are cut at appropriate time.

 The best time for sawing the tree is immediately after the tree has achieved its
full growth or maturity age so that the maximum quantity and best quality of
wood can be obtained.
 If an immature tree is cut, it will carry a lot of sapwood which may not be
much useful for the carpentry work.
 Contrary to this, if the tree is allowed to stand for long after attaining the
maturity the most valuable part of timber will be subjected to decay.
 Therefore enough care must be taken to see that felling is accomplished only
at the appropriate time.
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Seasoning of timber
• Seasoning is the process of drying or removing the moisture or Sap
presents in a freshly felled timber, under more or less controlled
conditions.

Advantages:
• Wood becomes hard, more durable, resistance to shock and stresses
produced.
• Its workability is improved.
• Its density is reduced, does not wrap after seasoning.
• Shrinkage does not occur after seasoning.
• Defects like twisting, bowing and splitting do not occur.
• Improved ability to polishing and painting.
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Methods of Seasoning
1. Natural Seasoning
(a) Air Drying/ seasoning
(b) Water Seasoning

2. Artificial Seasoning
(a) Kiln Seasoning
(b) Chemical Seasoning
(c) Electrical Seasoning
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NATURAL SEASONING
Air Seasoning:-
In this method of seasoning
the sawn timber is stacked in a
dry place about 30 cm above
floor level with longitudinal
and crosspieces arranged one
upon another, leaving a space
of a few Centimeters for free
circulation of air. Wood fit for
carpenter’s work after 2 years
and for painter’s work after 4
years.
Disadvantages:
o Very slow extends over years.
Advantages: o For large stacks considerable space is required.
• It does not necessitate much attention o Rigid control cannot be exercised
• It is simple and cheap method. o Block the capital a long time.
• Less chances of damage to the timber. o Timber may get damaged by insects and fungi
during seasoning period.
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(b) Water Seasoning

This method of seasoning timber consists in keeping logs of wood
completely immersed in a running stream of water, the longer ends of the log
being kept pointing up-stream. By this process, the sap, sugar and gum etc.
are leached out of the wood and replaced by water. The logs are then taken
out and left to dry in an open places.

Advantages
It is quick process, tendency of wood to shrink or wrap is
reduced less liable to be eaten away by worm or to decay
by dry rot.

Disadvantages
(i) The process reduces the elasticity and the durability of
the timber.
(ii) The timber is redder brittle.
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2. Artificial Seasoning
(a) Kiln Seasoning:-
The timber is seasoned under controlled temperature and humidity conditions with proper circulation and
ventilation system. The rise in temperature should be such that the timber retains the original strength and
elastic properties. The required humidity level is maintained to avoid wrapping and cracking.
The drying of timber at uniform rate is
well maintained by circulating hot air by
fans and a certain amount of steam is
added in order to retain correct humidity.
The ventilation is provided to avoid over
heating and excessive humidity. The
timber inside the chamber , on trolley is
kept under controlled conditions for
about fortnight or depending upon the
initial water content and required
moisture level. The quality of wood is
inferior as compared to the one
seasoned by natural seasoned methods
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KILN SEASONING
Advantages:
Moisture content can be reduced as per requirement
Less time required for seasoning, less shrinkage
The drying is controlled, so no chances for the attack of fungi and insects
The drying of different surfaces is even and uniform
Disadvantages:
It is costly.
More skilled labor required.
Due to quick seasoning so chances to check regularly seasoning defects such as
wrapping, internal cracks, surface cracks etc.
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( C) Electrical Seasoning:-
This method of seasoning works on the principle that heat is produced when poor conductor are placed
in the field of high frequency. The wooden planks are made to pass through an induction coil
producing high frequency. Due to an induction effect moisture contents in the wood is dried quickly.
This method of drying is employed in plywood manufacturing process. This method is not popular
because of prohibitive cost, lack of control moisture content, sudden drying damage wooden fibers.
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b) Chemical Seasoning
It is also known as salt seasoning.
In the method, the timber is immersed in a solution of
soluble salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in ordinary
way. The interior surface of timber dries in advance of
exterior one and chances of formation of external cracks are
reduced.
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CONVERSION
The process of sawing wooden logs into useful sizes and shapes (boards,
planks squares and other planes section and sizes etc.) for market or
commercial requirements is known as conversion.

Conversion is carried over prior to seasoning by two methods namely plain,

through, through sawn process and quarter and rift sawn process.
Plain sections of wood may likely to warp and hence cannot be used for
quality work.
Quarter sawing almost eliminates the chances of warping. Quarter
sawn sections are used as quality wood in cabinet making, decoration and
framework.

A notable feature in conversion is to provide an adequate allowance for

shrinkage that takes place during seasoning of sawn or converted wood.
The shrinkage of wood usually varies between 3.2 mm to 6.4 mm,
according to the type of wood and its time of cutting.
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Methods of conversion
Flat Cutting/sawn:
Most common, least
expensive
The first method is called as flat or
ordinary cutting which is the
simplest procedure of sawing but
the cut sections are likely to warp.
Therefore, the wood cut through
this procedure cannot be called as
quality work. In this method, the
timber log is cut into a number of
boards by taking various parallel
saw cuts into the suitable forms.
There are some disadvantages as
plain sawn wood does have some
structural drawbacks. Due to the
tangential grain, there is a higher
chance of cupping and twisting
especially if there is moisture
present.
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Quarter sawing
More expensive than plain sawn
material
Quarter sawn wood is more expensive because it is
more labor intensive to produce and the
manufacturing process produces more waste than
plain sawn lumber.

Quarter sawn lumber is defined as wood

where the annular growth rings intersect the
face of the board at a 60 to 90 degree angle.
When cutting at the sawmill, each log is
sawed at a radial angle into four quarters,
hence the name. Quarter sawn wood has an
amazing straight grain pattern that lends itself
to design.

The normal defect of warping is almost eliminated by this procedure of sawing and the
timber is very suitable for all sorts of wood work involving cabinet-making, decoration
and framework.
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Rift or radial sawn

Most expensive, least common
Rift sawn boards are
manufactured by milling
perpendicular to the log’s
growth rings producing a linear
grain with no flecking.
The annual growth rings are
typically between 30 to 60
degrees. This is a time
consuming process that
produces large triangles of waste
left from between each board.
The result makes rift sawn
lumber is costly to produce.
Rift sawn lumber is the most dimensionally stable cut of lumber available, and it is
used for applications that require straight lined grain through and through. It is ideal
for custom furniture makers to use for table, chairs, and other furniture legs that
benefit from having all exposed sides with the same linear appearance.
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DEFECTS IN TIMBER
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CLASSIFICATIONS OF
DEFECTS

(CAUSED DUE TO)

SEASONING
NATURAL FORCES INSECTS FUNGI
CONVERSION
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CHEMICAL
STAIN

KNOTS

SHAKES

DEFECTS DUE
TWISTED
TO NATURAL FIBRES
FORCES RIND
GALLS

UPSETS

BURLS
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chemical stain:-
The wood is sometimes discolored by the
chemical action caused with it by some external
agency. This is known as chemical stain.

knots:-
These are the bases of branches or limbs
which are broken or cut off from the tree.
The portion from which the branch is
removed receives nourishment from the
stem for a pretty long time and it ultimately
results in formation of dark hard rings
which are known as knots.as continuity of
wood fibres are broken by knots, they
form a source of weakness
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Rind galls:-
The rind means bark and gall
indicates abnormal growth.
Hence peculiar curved
swelling found on the body of
tree are known as rind gall.
They develop at points from
where branches are improperly
cut off or removed. They are
rarely found in a tree and the
timber in this part is very weak
and not durable.
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Coarse Grain:-
if the tree grows rapidly, the annual
rings are widened.it is known as the
coarser grain timber and such timber
possesses less strength.

Shakes:-
These are longitudinal separations
in wood between the annual rings.
these are cracks which partly or
completely separate fibres of wood.
the separations make the wood
undesirable when appearance is
important.
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TYPES OF SHAKES
Star Shakes:-
These are cracks which extend from bark towards
the sap wood. These are usually confined upto the
plane of sap wood. These are wider on outside ends
and narrower on inside ends. they are usually
formed due to extreme heat or severe frost during
the growth of tree.

Cup Shakes:-
It appears as curved split which partly or
wholly separates annual rings from one
another.it is caused due to excessive frost
action on sap present in the tree especially
when the tree is young
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Heart shakes:-
These cracks occur in centre of cross-section
of tree and they extend from pith to sap
wood in direction of medullary rays. These
cracks occur due to shrinkage of interior part
of tree which is approaching maturity. The
heart shake divide the tree cross-section into
two or four parts.

Ring shakes:-
When cup shakes cover the
entire ,they are known as ring shakes
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Twisted fibres:-
These are known as wandering hearts and caused by
twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind. The
timbers with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing

Upsets:-
These indicate wood fibres which are injured by
crushing or compression. The upsets are mainly due
to improper felling of tree and exposure of tree in
its young age to fast blowing wind

Burls:-
They are particularly formed when a tree recieves
shock or injury in its young age. Due to its
injury,the growth of tree is completely upset and
irregular projections appear on the body of timber
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DEFECTS DUE TO
FUNGI

BLUE BROWN DRY HEART WET WHITE

STAIN ROT ROT ROT ROT ROT
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Blue stain :-
The sap of wood is stained to bluish colour
by the action of certain type of fungi
Brown rot :-
The term rot is used to indicate decay or
disease of timber, the fungi of certain
type removes cellulose compounds
from wood and hence wood assumes
the brown colour.
White rot:-
It is just opposite of brown rot. In this
certain type of fungi attack lignin of
wood and wood assumes the appearance
of a white mass consisting of cellulose
compounds
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Heart rot:-
This is formed when branch has come out of the tree. In
such case, the heart wood is exposed to attack of
atmospheric agents. Ultimately the tree becomes weak
and it gives hollow sound when struck with hammer.

Wet rot:-
Some kind of fungi caused chemical
decomposition of wood of timber and in
doing so convert timber into greyish brown
powder. It is known as wet rot. Some
important points to be remembered about wet
rot are.

The alternate wet and dry conditions favours the development of wet rot
If unseasoned or improperly seasoned timber are exposed to rain and wind,
they become easily liable for attack of wet rot.
To prevent wet rot, the well seasoned timber should be used for exterior
work or for underground work and it should be covered by tar or paint for
protection against moisture
 46

Dry rot :-
Some types of fungi feed on woods and during
feeding they attack on wood and convert it into
dry powder form. This is known as dry rot. The
following facts to be noted.

Dry rot occurs at the places where there is no free circulation of air such as
improperly ventilated basements, rooms etc. and damped situation like kitchen
toilet etc.
The unseasoned sap wood are easily attacked by dry rot.
The favorable conditions for growth of fungus causing dry rot are absence of
sunlight, dampness, presence of sap, stagnant air and warmth.
It is also caused by charring, painting and tarring the unseasoned timber.
The dry rot may be prevented by using well seasoned timber free from sap.
When a part of tree is seriously affected by dry rot, the damaged portion may
be completely removed and remaining unaffected portion should be painted
with a solution of copper sulphate.
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DEFECTS DUE TO INSECTS

(CAUSED BY)

BEETLES MARINE TERMITES

BOARERS
 48

Defects caused by beetles

Flour like
powder

They form pin holes of size about 2mm dia in wood

Tunnel formation is done in sap wood by larvae of beetle
Conversion of timber into flour like powder
They do not disturb outer shell or cover
 49

DEFECTS DUE TO MARINE BOARERS

BOARS

They are found in salty water

They form tunnels or bores to take shelters
Diameter and length of holes are as high as 25mm and 60 mm
respectively
Affected wood looses its colour and strength
No timber is completely immune from attack of marine boarers.
 50

DEFECTS CAUSED BY TERMITES

Lives in colony and very fast in eating away the wood from core
of cross-section.
Makes tunnels in different directions and usually not disturb the
outer shell or cover.
The timber piece attacked by termites may look sound untill it
completely fails
Few good timbers like teak, sal,etc can resist the action of
termites
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DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION

CHIP MARK DIAGONAL GRAIN TORN WANE

GRAIN
 52

DEFECTS DUE TO CONVERSION

Chip mark:-
This defect is indicated by mark
or signs placed on finished
surface of timber. They may be
formed by planing machine

Wane:-
This defect is denoted by
presence of original
rounded surface on
manufactured part of
timber.
 53

Diagonal grain:-
The defect is formed due to
improper sawing of timber. It is
indicated by diagonal marks on
straight grained surface of timber.

Torn grain:-
Defect caused when a small
depression is formed on a
finished surface of timber by
falling a timber or so

TORN GRAIN
 54

DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING

TWIST CUP BOW SPRING SPLIT HONEY

COMBING
 55

DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING

Bow:-
This defect is indicated by curvature
formed in direction of length of
timber
Cup:-
This defect is indicated by curvature
formed in transverse direction of
timber.
 56

Check:-
A Crack which separated
fibres of wood. It does not
extend from one end to the
other.

Split:-
when check extends
from one end to other, it CHECK SPLIT
is known as a split
 57

Twist:-
When a piece of timber has
spirally distorted along its
length, it is known as a twist.

Honey-combing:-
Due to stress developed during
drying, various radial and
circular cracks develop in the
interior portion of timber, which
resembles with honey-comb
texture.
HONEY-COMB
STRUCTURE
 58

Assignment titles
i. Write a report or prepare presentation with different types of commercially
available and its properties. Pictures are mandatory or samples(Group-1)
ii. Write a report or prepare presentation on type of timber conversion used in
local market and its application. -Pictures are mandatory or samples(Group-2)
iii. Design a picture gallery of timber Defects during seasoning and its reason or
remedy for use.(Group-3)
iv. Design a picture gallery of timber Defects during conversion and its reason or
remedy for use.(Group-4)
v. Describe the list of defects commonly observed in commercial timber and how
it change its value?(Group-5)