Anatomy of the Nervous

System
General Layout of the Nervous System

Divisions of the Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS)

- located within the skull and spine

The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

- located outside the skull and spine
- composed of nerves branching out the brain the
spinal cord.
Ganglion-neuronal bodies found in the PNS
 Two Divisions of PNS
1. somatic nervous system
- interacts with the external environment
- composed of afferent nerves ( going toward something, ex.,
advance, approach, arrive) that carry sensory signals from the skin,
skeletal muscles ( attached to bones by tendons, and they produce all
the movements of body parts in relation to each other), joints, eyes,
ears, and so on to the nervous system. And the efferent nerves ( going
away, ex., exit, embark, escape) that carry motor signals from the
central nervous system to the skeletal muscle.
2. The autonomic nervous system
- regulates the body’s internal environment.
- composed of afferent nerves that carry sensory signals
from internal organs to the CNS and efferent nerves that carry
motor signals from the CNS to internal organs.
 2 kinds of Autonomic NS
1. Sympathetic nerve
- are those autonomic motor nerves that project from the CNS in the lumbar(
small of the back) and the thoracic ( chest area) regions of the spinal cord.
- it stimulates, organize, and mobilize energy resources in threatening
situations, (or it responded to dangerous or stressful situation)
- indicative psychological arousal
2. Parasympathetic nerve
- are those autonomic motor nerves that project from the brain and sacral
(lower back) region of the spinal cord.
- on the other hand, it acts to conserve energy
- indicative psychological relaxation
 The functions of the various cranial nerves (nerves from
brain area down to the neck, face and trunk) are commonly
assessed by neurologist as a basis for diagnosis. Because
the functions and locations of the cranial nerves are
specific, disruptions of particular cranial nerve function
provide excellent clues about the location and extent of
tumors and other kinds of brain pathology.-or diseases or
disorders of the brain (example, stroke, seizure, migraine)
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
1. Dura mater
- tough mother
- tough membrane
2. Arachnoid membrane
- immediately inside the dura mater
- spider-weblike membrane
- Subarachnoid space
- located beneath the arachnoid membrane
- contains many large blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid.

3. Pia mater (delicate)

- pious mother
- nnermost meninx, which adheres to the surface of the CNS
Cerebrospinal fluid
- protecting the CNS
- fills the subarachnoid space, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the
cerebral ventricles of the brain.
- maintains lubricants in the brain (fluid) it contains nutrients that that is
filtered from the blood
- supports and cushions the brain.
- patients who have had some of their cerebrospinal fluid drained away often
suffer raging headaches and experience stabbing pain each time they jerk their
needs.
 Ventricles of the Brain
Cerebral ventricles
- are four large chambers of the brain
The Lateral Ventricles: they are located on the left and right
hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, or the cerebrum. The two
ventricles have protrusions (sometimes called 'horns') that extend into
three of the major cortical lobes, namely the frontal, occipital, and
temporal lobes of the brain.
 Cont..
The Third Ventricle: this ventricle is connected to the two lateral ventricles
via the foramen of Monro which allows for the interchange of CSF. The
thalamus surrounds the third ventricle
The Fourth Ventricle and Cerebral Aqueduct: Since it is the farthest back
of the ventricular system, the fourth ventricle receives the remaining CSF
via the cerebral aqueduct. Due to its posterior position, the fourth ventricle
is also found between the medulla oblongata and the pons. After the fourth
ventricle, the remaining CSF finally goes into two separate routes: the
central spinal canal, which is responsible for CSF flow to the spinal cord,
and the subarachnoid cisterns, which sends CSF to the brain.
Choroid plexuses
 its a group of cells in the ventricles of the brain that function to produce
cerebrospinal fluid.
The resulting buildup of fluid in the ventricles causes the walls of the
ventricles, and thus the entire brain , to expand, producing a condition called
hydrocephalus (water head).
 this could be treated by draining the excess fluid from ventricles and
trying to remove obstruction.
 Blood-Brain Barrier
 Blood-brain barrier is a mechanism that blocks the passage of many toxic
substances from the blood into the brain.
 Blood circulates throughout the body in tubes called blood vessels,
delivering oxygen and essential nutrients to different organs.
 However, not all things that circulate through the body can get into the
brain. The blood vessels of the brain are slightly different. Their walls have a
unique barrier that allows entry of some substances, but keeps others out of
the brain. This unique security feature is known as the blood-brain barrier.
 Cont…
 It does not block the passage of all large molecules. Some
large molecules that are critical for normal brain function
(e.g., glucose and amino acid) are actively transported
through cerebral blood vessel walls.
 Also, the blood vessel walls in some areas of the brain
allow certain large molecules to pass through them
unimpeded.
 Cont…
 This is important because this provides access to substances
that the brain needs to function, while keeping harmful
substances at bay.
 The blood-brain barrier is therefore an important feature
that keeps our brains and bodies healthy.
What happens if the blood-brain barrier is not working properly?

 Infections, abnormal inflammation, or prolonged stress in

the body can contribute to larger gaps between the tight
connections of the blood-brain barrier, seen in diseases such
as multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer’s disease or with brain
tumors. If the blood-brain barrier is not working properly,
harmful substances that are usually kept out of the brain
may enter and cause problems, and can start a harmful
cycle of more infections and more inflammation.
Anatomy of Neurons
 What are Neurons?
 Neurons (AKA nerve cells) are the information-carrying cells of the
central nervous system (CNS). They use electrical impulses and
chemical signals to transmit messages between different parts of the
brain, and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
Neurons are what allow us to perceive and interact with the world
around us, and are responsible for all of our thoughts, movements,
emotions, and desires.
 Structure of neurons
Cell body
The cell body (AKA the soma) of the neuron contains the
nucleus, which houses all of the cell’s DNA and regulates
cellular activities. The nerve cell body also contains essential
organelles including ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, and Golgi apparatus.
 Cont…

Dendrites
Dendrites are projections that branch off of the cell
body of neurons. Their function is to receive messages
in the form of chemical signals from other nerve cells.
They then convert these signals into electrical impulses
and transmit them to the cell body.
 Cont…
Axon
The axon is a long extension that carries electrical
impulses away from the nerve cell body. The axon is usually
surrounded by a myelin sheath, an insulating layer that allows
for the rapid conduction of impulses along the length of the
axon. At the end of the axon are the axon terminals, which is
where information exits the cell and is passed on to target
cells.
 Other parts of neurons
Nucleus
1. It contains the genetic information of the cell in the form of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) or chromosomes and thus, controls cell growth and multiplication. It
is also the site of DNA replication (formation of an identical copy of DNA).
2. It regulates cell metabolism by synthesizing various enzymes.
3. It is the site for the synthesis of ribonucleic acid or RNA that acts as a template
for the synthesis of various proteins in the cell. It is also the site for the synthesis
of the protein factories of the cell called the ribosomes.
 Cont…
Shwann Cells
Schwann cells serve as the myelinating cell of the PNS and support cells of
peripheral neurons.
A Schwann cell forms a myelin sheath by wrapping its plasma membrane
concentrically around the inner axon.
They myelinate peripheral nerves and serve as the primary glial cells of the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), insulating and providing nutrients to axons.
Schwann cells are critical in response to PNS axon damage and axon
regeneration.
 Cont…
Myelin Sheath
Myelin sheath is a substance which is found on neurons within the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Myelin sheath is the protective layer that wraps around the axons of neurons to
aid in insulating the neurons, and to increase the number of electrical signals being
transferred.
An axon is usually wrapped by the myelin sheath around its whole length in
order to increase the speed of these electrical signals, allowing all actions to be
conducted quickly.
 Cont…
Myelin sheath’s primary function is to provide insulation to the axons of the
neuron it surrounds.

Myelin sheath is produced by different types of glia cells. Glia cells are
located in the CNS and PNS, that work to maintain homeostasis, and provide
support and protection for neurons.
 Cont…
Node of Ranvier
Whilst the myelin sheath wraps around the axons, there are some
small, uncovered gaps between the myelin sheath, which are called the
nodes of Ranvier.
As the electrical impulses cannot travel through the myelin sheath,
it instead ‘jumps’ from one node of Ranvier to another in a type of
conduction called saltatory conduction.
 Cont…
Axon Terminal
The axon terminal, also known as the synaptic bouton and terminal
bouton, is the most distal portion of a neuron’s axon and is critical for
neural communication. When action potentials reach the axon
terminal, calcium floods the neuron, allowing synaptic vesicles to fuse
with the membrane and release stored neurotransmitters to target cells.
This results in communication between stimulated neurons and
target cells.
Inside the cell body
 Assignment 1

Search and draw the classes of neuron. Identify each

type and its function.
Deadline: next meeting (Creavity-20 points, neatness-
200 points, label-30 points)
 Neurons and Neuroanatomical Structure
2 kinds of gross neural structures in the nervous system:

1. Those composed primarily of cell bodies

2. Those composed primarily of axons

In the CNS, cluster of cell bodies are called nuclei (singular nucleus)
In the PNS, they are called ganglia (singular ganglion)
In the CNS, bundles of axons are called tracts; in the PNS they are
called nerves.
 Glial Cells: The Forgotten Cells

 Neurons are not the only cells in the nervous system; glial
cells are found throughout the system.
 10:1
 The two types of glia cells that produce myelin are
Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes.
 Cont…
Kinds of Glial Cells
Oligodendrocytes are glial cells with extensions that wrap around the
axons of some neurons of the central nervous system.
- these extensions are rich in myelin, a fatty insulating substance,
and the myelin sheaths that they form increase the speed and efficiency
of axonal conduction.
A similar function is performed in the peripheral nervous system by
Schwann cells, second class of glial cells.
 Notice that each Schwann cell constitutes one myelin segments,
whereas each oligodendrocyte provides several myelin segments
often on more that one axon.
 Another important difference between Schwann cells and
oligodendrocytes is that Schwann cells can guide axonal
regeneration after damage.
 That is why effective axonal regeneration in the mammalian nervous
system is restricted in the PNS.
Microglia are smaller than other glia.
- they respond to injury or disease by multiplying, engulfing cellular debris,
and triggering inflammatory responses.

Astrocytes are the largest glial cells and they are so name because they are star-
shaped.
- the extensions of some astrocytes cover the outer surfaces of blood
vessels that course through the brain; they also make contact with neuron cell
bodies.
- these particular astrocytes play a role in allowing the passage of some
chemicals from the blood in the CNS neurons and in blocking other chemicals.
Directions in the Vertebrate Nervous System
 The vertebrate nervous system has three axes: anterior-posterior,
dorsal-ventral, and medial-lateral.
 First, anterior means toward the nose end (the anterior end).
Posterior means toward the tail end (posterior end). Sometimes
referred to as rostral and caudal.
 Second, dorsal means toward the surface of the back or the top of
the head (the dorsal surface), and ventral means toward the surface
of the chest or the bottom of the head (ventral surface).
 Third, medial means toward the midline of the body, and lateral
means away from the midline toward the body’s lateral surfaces.
 Spinal Cord

Two different areas of spinal cord:

a. Inner H-shaped core of gray matter
b. A surrounding area of white matter.

Gray matter is composed largely of cell bodies and unmyelinated

interneurons
White matter is composed largely of myelinated axons
 It is the myelin that gives the white matter its glossy white sheen.
 The two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter are called the dorsal
horns, and the two ventral arms are called the ventral horns.
 Pairs of spinal nerves are attached to the spinal cord- on the left and
one on the right-at 31 different levels of the spine.
 Each of these 62 spinal nerves divides as it nears the cord, and its
axons are joined to the cord via one of two roots: the dorsal root or
the ventral root.
 All the dorsal axons, whether somatic or autonomic, are sensory (afferent)
unipolar neurons with their cell bodies grouped together just outside the cord
to form the dorsal root ganglia
 Many of their synaptic terminals are in the dorsal horns of the spinal gray
matter.
 In contrast, the neurons of the ventral root are motor (efferent) multipolar
neurons with their cell bodies in the ventral horns.
 those that are part of the somatic nervous system project to skeletal muscles;
those that are part of the automatic nervous system project to ganglia, where
they synapse on neurons that in turn project to internal organs (heart,
stomach, liver, etc.)
 Major Structures of the Brain

Myelencephalon
- or the medulla
- the most posterior division of the brain, is composed largely of tracts
carrying signals between the rest of the brain and the body.
- an interesting part of the myelencephalon from a psychological
perspective is the reticular formation.
Reticular formation it is complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that
occupies the central core of the brain stem from posterior boundary of the
myelencephalon to the anterior boundary of the midbrain.
Metencephalon
- this structures create a bulge, called pons, on the brain stem’s
ventral surface.
- the pons is one major division of the metencephalon; the other is
the cerebellum (little brain)
The cerebellum is the large, convoluted structure on the brain stem’s
dorsal surface.
- it is important sensorimotor structure; cerebellar damage
eliminates the ability to precisely control one’s movements and to
adapt them changing conditions.
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
- the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the
forebrain.
- the two divisions of the mesencephalon are the tectum and the
tegmentum
Tectum (roof) is the dorsal surface of the midbrain.
- the posterior pair called the inferior colliculi have an auditory
function
- the anterior pair called the superior colliculi, have a visual
function.
 Tegmentum
- is the division of the mesencephalon ventral to the tectum.
- it contains three colorful structures that are particular interest
to biopsychologists:
a. Periaqueductal gray is the gray matter situated around the
cerebral aqueduct. Pain reducing (analgesic effects of opiate
drugs.
b. The substantia nigra (black substance) and the red nucleus
are both important components of the sensorimotor system.
 Diencephalon
- is composed of two surface the thalamus and the hypothalamus
- the thalamus is the large, two-lobed structure that constitutes the
top of the brain stem. (It’s known as a relay station of all incoming
motor (movement) and sensory information)
- the hypothalamus is located just below the anterior thalamus. It
plays an important role in the regulation of several motivated
behaviors (e.g. sleep, sexual behavior)
- its effect in part by regulating the release of hormones from the
pituitary gland.
 Telencephalon
- the largest division of human brain, mediates the brain’s
most complex functions.
- it initiates voluntary movement, interprets sensory input,
and mediates complex cognitive processes such as learning,
speaking, and problem solving.
 The Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia

 Limbic system is a circuit of midline structures that circle the

thalamus (limbic means “ring”).
 The limbic system is involved in the regulation of motivated
behaviors-including four F’s of motivation: fleeing, feeding,
fighting, and sexual behavior
a. Amygdala
- the almond-shaped
- processing fearful and threatening stimuli including detection of
threat and activation of appropriate fear-related behaviors in response
to threatening or dangerous stimuli.
b. Hippocampus
- posterior to the amygdala. Runs beneath the thalamus in
the medial temporal lobe.
c. cingulate cortex
- cingulate cortex is the large strip of cortex in the
cingulate gyrus on the medial surface of the cerebral
hemispheres, just superior to the corpus callosum; it encircles
the dorsal thalamus.
D. Fornix
- comes from Latin and means
"arch." It is used to refer to various arch-
like structures in the body, but when
used in reference to the brain it indicates
a bundle of white matter fibers that
arches around the thalamus.
d. Septum
- is a midline nucleus that is located at the anterior tip of
the cingulate cortex
- several tracts connect the septum and mammillary bodies
with the amygdala and hippocampus, thereby completing the
limbic ring.
BASAL GANGLIA
 Caudate a long-tail like. Posterior direction and then in an anterior
direction.
 Each caudate forms an almost complete circle; in its center,
connected to it by a series of fiber bridges, is the putamen
 Caudate and putamen both have a striped appearance known as
striatum.
 The remaining structure of the basal ganglia is the pale circular
structure known as globus pallidus (pale globe). Located medial to
the putamen, between the putamen and the thalamus.
 The basal ganglia play a role in the performance of
voluntary motor responses.
 Nucleus accumbens is thought to play role in the
rewarding effects of addictive drugs and other
reinforcers.