ELEMENTS

• An element is a substance which is

made up of the same chemical atoms.
• An element is made up of atoms.
• There are 103 known elements of
which 92 are natural and 11 are
artificial.
 SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS
• A chemical symbol is a short way of
representing an element.
• It consists of either a single capital
letter or two letters with the first being
capital and the second a small letter.
• In most cases a symbol is the first letter
of the English name of the element
Examples 
Hydrogen H Carbon C Fluorine F

Oxygen O Boron B Phosphorus P

Nitrogen N Iodine I Sulphur S

• Some elements have names
which begin with the same letter.
•These are represented with
symbols which consist of more
than one letter.
 
Examples
 
Aluminium Al Argon Ar
Barium Ba Bromine Br
Magnesium Mg Manganese Mn
Calcium Ca Chlorine Cl
Some elements have their symbols
derived from their Latin names.
Examples
Sodium( Natrium) Na
Potassium( Kalium) K
Copper(cuprum)) Cu
Iron(Ferrum) Fe
Lead(plumbum) Pb
Silver(Argentum) Ag
Gold(Aurum) Au
Mercury(Hydragyrum) Hg
Tin(stannum) Sn
Antimony(stobum) Sb
 COMPOUND
 

A compound is a substance
which consists of two or
more elements which are
chemically combined.
Name of compound Elements in it
Water Hydrogen and oxygen
carbon dioxide Carbon and oxygen
Carbon monoxide Carbon and oxygen
Calcium carbonate Calcium, carbon and
oxygen
Sodium nitrate Sodium, nitrogen and
oxygen
Potassium sulphate
Glucose
 MIXTURES

A mixture is a
substance which
consists of two or
more substances
which are not
chemically combined.
Name of Substance in it
mixture

Salt solution Salt and water

Sugar Sugar and water
solution

Sea water Salts and water

air Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, water vapour, rare gases

Crude oil Many alkanes

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A MIXTUREAND A COMPOUND
MIXTURE COMPOUND
The elements in a compound
The substances in a mixture can
be separated by physical methods cannot be separated by
eg distillation, evaporation, any physical means
sublimation and filtration

The mixture may vary In

The elements in a
composition eg a mixture of compound are in fixed
20g Sulphur and 50g iron or composition eg in
100g sulphur and 70g iron, water(H2O), the ratio of
are both mixtures in hydrogen and oxygen is
different proportions always 2:1
Making a mixture does Making a compound
not produce heat produces heat energy eg
energy burning magnesium in air
or burning paper in air

The properties of a The properties of a

mixture are the sum of compound are different
the properties of the from those of the
substances in the mixture elements in it eg in water
eg sulphur is yellow ,iron hydrogen and oxygen are
is grey while the mixture gases while water is a
is both yellow and grey liquid
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
• A physical change is one in
which no new substance is
formed.
•A chemical change is one in
which a new substance is
formed.
Examples of physical changes 
• Melting a solid to form a liquid.
• Evaporation of a liquid.
• Condensing a gas
• Freezing a liquid
• Magnetizing iron.
• Heating the element of the stove
with electricity
 Examples of chemical changes
 
• Burning a substance in air.
• Rusting of iron.
• Burning natural gas.
• Preparation of salts.
• Photosynthesis.
• Respiration.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A PHYSICAL
AND A CHEMICAL CHANGE
Physical change Chemical change
No new substance is A new substance is
formed formed
It is reversible It is not reversible
Does not produce Produces heat
heat
There is no change There is a change in
in mass mass
 VALENCE
The valence of an element
is the number of electrons
its atoms lose, gain or
share, to form a compound
or is the combining power
of an element.
Valence Metals symbol Non-metal Symbol
1 Potassium K Chlorine Cl
Sodium Na Iodine I
Silver Ag Bromine Br
Copper Cu hydrogen H
Mercury Hg

2 Magnesium Mg Sulphur S
Calcium Ca Oxygen O
Zinc Zn
Mercury Hg
Copper Cu
Iron Fe
Tin Sn

3 Aluminium Al Nitrogen N
Iron Fe Phosphorus P
4 Lead Pb Carbon C
5 phosphorus P
 RADICALS
 
A radical is an atom or group
of atoms which either exist
only as ions or which have no
independent existence.
Radical Formula Charge Valence
ammonium NH4+ +1 1
nitrate NO3- -1 1
Nitrite NO2- -1 1
hydrogencarbonate HCO3- -1 1
hydrogensulphate HSO4- -1 1
Hhdrogensulphite HSO3-
-1 1
Hydride H- -1 1
Fluoride F- -1 1
Chloride Cl- -1 1
Bromide Br- -1 1
Iodide I-
-1 1
hydroxide OH-
peroxide O22- -2 2
Carbonate CO32- -2 2
-2 2
sulphate SO42-
-2 2
Sulphite SO32- -2 2
sulphide S2- -2 2
oxide O2-
WRITING FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS 
A chemical formula is when
symbols of elements are brought
together to form a compound.
• For elements which exist as
molecules, the formula is the
symbol of the element with the
number of atoms in one
molecule written at the bottom
right- hand corner of the symbol.
Examples
Molecule formula
 
Hydrogen H2
Oxygen O2
Nitrogen N2
Fluorine F2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2
Iodine I2
Astatine At2
 Rules
1 Write the symbols of the combining
elements.
2 Write the valence of each element or
radical at its top right hand side.
3 Exchange the valences of the
combining elements and radicals by
writing them at the bottom right hand
side of the element or radical.
4 Divide the subscripts by a common factor,
if they are divisible, and write the formula
by bringing the symbols and radicals
together.
5 If the radical is enclosed by a bracket and
there is 1 outside the bracket, do not write
valence 1 in the formula ,and remove the
bracket.
 Examples
Write the formulae of
1 zinc(II) chloride
2
Copper(II) nitrate
3 sodium
hydroxide
4 aluminium hydroxide
Zinc(II) chloride copper(II) nitrate Sodium hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide
Write the symbols 
Zn Cl Cu NO3 Na OH Al OH

Fix and interchange the valences and write the valence

below the symbol
 

Zn2 Cl1 Cu2 (NO3)1 Na1 (OH)1 Al3 (OH)1

 

Zn1 Cl2 Cu1 (NO3)2 Na1 (OH)1 Al1 (OH)3

Drop valence 1 and remove the bracket

Formula:ZnCl2 Cu(NO3)2 NaOH Al(OH)3

 Exercise

Write the formulae of the following compounds

 
1 Sodium sulphate
2 Calcium nitrate
3 Copper(II) carbonate
4 Calcium hydroxide
5 Aluminium nitrate
6 Iron(II) sulphate
7 Sodium chloride
8 Potassium nitrate
9 Iron(III) sulphate
10 Iron(III) hydroxide
11 Potassium phosphate
12 Zinc(II) sulphate
13 Manganese(III) oxide
14 Sodium nitrate
15 Iron(II) sulphide
16 Sodium sulphide
17 Sodium peroxide
19 Copper(I) oxide
20 Iron(III) oxide
21 Sodium hydrogen carbonate
22 Calcium hydrogen sulphite
 23 manganese(IV) oxide
24 Copper(II) sulphate
25 Aluminium nitride
26 Hydrogen oxide
27 Calcium sulphate
28 Barium nitrate
29 Sodium phosphide
30 Potassium bromide
Write chemical formulae of the following compounds.
1 Iron (III) chloride
2 Chromium (VI) oxide
3 Potassium hydrogen carbonate
4 Sodium oxide
5 Calcium phosphide
6 Magnesium hydrogen carbonate
7 Mercury (II) nitrate
8 Copper (II) hydroxide
9 Aluminium phosphite
10 Phosphorus (III) oxide
11 Phosphorus (V) hydride
12 Barium hydroxide
13 Potassium oxide
14 Lead(II) iodide
15 Lead(IV) oxide
16 Lead(II) carbonate
17 Mercury (II) oxide
18 Sulphur (II) oxide
19 Sulphur (IV) oxide
20 Tin (IV) chloride
  CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 
• A chemical equation represents a
chemical reaction.
• It consists of the formulae of the
reactants and products.
• Reactants are substances which take
part in a chemical reaction.
• They are written on the left-hand side
of the equation.
• Products are substances formed by
the reaction.
• They are written on the right-hand
side of the reaction.
• The reactants and products are
separated by an arrow pointing
from the reactants to the products
For example, in the general equation below:
A + B → C +
D
 

• The arrow means “to form”.

• The plus sign on the left hand side of
the equation means “reacts with “and on
the right-hand side “and”.
•Read as: A reacts with B to form C and D
 RULES FOR WRITING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
 
1 The reactants and products are
written down as a word equation
2 The formula for each reactant
and each product is written.
3 The equation for the reaction is balanced
using the simplest multiples of the
formulae.
• To balance an equation is to make the
number of atoms of each kind of
element on either side of the equation
equal.
• Never alter the formulae of reactants
and products when balancing an
equation.
4 The physical state of each reactant
and product are put in after the
formula
(s) for solid
(l) for liquid
(m)for gas
(aq) for aqueous solution(solute in
water)
 Exercise
Write balanced chemical equations of the
following word equations
1 Sodium + water →
sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2 Magnesium + hydrochloric acid →

magnesium chloride + hydrogen
3 Potassium hydroxide + sulphuric
acid → potassium sulphate + water

4 Sodium chloride + silver nitrate →

silver chloride + sodium nitrate
5 Iron + sulphuric acid → iron (II)
sulphate + hydrogen

6 Iron + chlorine → iron(III) chloride

7 Phosphorus + chlorine →
Phosphorus (V) chloride
8 Phosphorus + oxygen →
phosphorus (III) oxide

9 Sodium bromide + chlorine →

sodium chloride + bromine

10 Aluminium + oxygen →
aluminium oxide
11 Aluminium + hydrochloric acid →
aluminium chloride + hydrogen

12 Copper + sulphuric acid →

copper(II) sulphate + hydrogen

13 Copper(II) oxide + ammonia →

copper +nitrogen + water
14 Ammonia + oxygen →
nitrogen monoxide + water

15 Iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide →

iron + carbon dioxide

16 Sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid →

sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

17 Lead (II) nitrate + potassium iodide →

lead(II) iodide + potassium nitrate
18 Copper + nitric acid → copper(II) nitrate +
nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

19 Calcium nitrate → calcium oxide + nitrogen

dioxide + oxygen

20 Copper(II) oxide + nitric acid → copper(II)

nitrate + water

21 Aluminium sulphate + sodium hydroxide →

aluminium hydroxide + sodium sulphate
 IONIC EQQUATIONS
• An ionic equation is one which
shows those species taking part in a
chemical reaction.
• The particles which do not take
part in the chemical reaction are
known as SPECTATOR IONS.
• The charge of the particles
which take part in the reaction
change from the left side to the
right side of the equation.
• The charge of the spectator ions
do not change from left to right.
 STEPS FOR WRITING IONIC EQUATIONS 

1 Write a balanced chemical

equation showing the
symbols and formulae for the
reactants and products
2 Split the formulae of the ionic
compounds which are in aqueous
state into positive and negative ions
by putting a plus sign between
them.
3 The formulae of the substances in
solid, liquid and gas states must
remain unchanged since they do
not contain mobile ions.
4 The spectator ions must be cancelled
out. The spectator ions are those that
are common on either side of the
equation.
5 Write the net ionic equation showing
only those particles that have taken
part in the chemical reaction
6 Remember: Metals and hydrogen
form positive ions.
Non-metals and radicals form
negative ions.
The size of the charge is equal to
the valence of the atom or radical.
 Write the net ionic equation of the following
chemical equation. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) →
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Split aqueous compounds into ions(along the
dotted line)
Na⁞OH(aq) + H⁞Cl(aq) → Na⁞Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

The result is shown below

  
Na+(aq)+OH-(aq)+H+(aq)+Cl-(aq)→Na+(aq)+Cl-(aq)+ H2O(l)

 Cancel out spectator ions(ions common on either

side of the equation)
Na+(aq)+OH-(aq)+H+(aq)+Cl-(aq)→Na+(aq)+Cl-(aq)+ H2O(l)

The result is shown below

Net equation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

2 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O)
(l)
Delete the spectator ions along the dotted lines

2KO⁞H(aq) + H2⁞SO4(aq) → K2⁞SO4(aq) + 2H2O)(l)

 
2K+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
→ 2K+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) 

2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l) net

equation
 Exercise 
Write net ionic equations of the following chemical
equations 
1 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

2 2AgNO3(aq)+ ZnCl2(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)

3 2NaOH(aq) + CuCl2(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

4 Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

5 Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

6 2KI(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(l)

7 Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

8 Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

9 CuCO3(s)+2HNO3(aq)→Cu(NO3)2(aq)+CO2(g)+ H2O(l)

10 2NH4OH(aq)+ H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)+ 2H2O (l)

11 SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l0

12 C uO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

13 CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

14 Mg(s)+ 2HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

15 6KOH(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq)→ 2Al(OH)3(s)+ 3K2SO4(aq